Constitutional and Judicial Interpretation of Environmental Laws in Nigeria, India and Canada
Main Article Content
Abstract
The judiciary, an important branch of government responsible for legal interpretation, dispute resolution, and justice administration, holds a crucial role in national environmental protection. Courts play a key role in safeguarding a nation's environment by interpreting constitutional provisions related to environmental protection and other legislative frameworks. The effectiveness of a country's environmental protection is contingent on the assertiveness, creativity, and innovation of its judiciary in interpreting laws, policies, and regulations designed for environmental preservation. The widely held belief is that the judiciary, more than any other institution, is best positioned to adjudicate, inform, guide, and lead in environmental protection. A proactive, inventive, and inspirational judiciary motivates the executive and legislative branches to implement pertinent environmental laws, policies, and regulations. This study utilizes a doctrinal research methodology to comprehensively review and compare the environmental protection frameworks in Nigeria, India, and Canada. The focus is on constitutional provisions related to environmental protection and judicial interpretations, particularly in the context of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) laws. While explicit constitutional provisions on environmental protection are absent in Canada, India, and Nigeria, the courts in India and Canada have demonstrated creative interpretation of their constitutions to safeguard the environment. Notably, in India, environmental protection falls under the non-adjudicable Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
Article Details
How to Cite
Nyekwere, E. H., Nnawulezi, U., Adiyatma, S. E., Balarabe, K., & Rouf, M. A. (2023). Constitutional and Judicial Interpretation of Environmental Laws in Nigeria, India and Canada. Lex Scientia Law Review, 7(2), 905-958. https://doi.org/10.15294/lesrev.v7i2.69394
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
All writings published in this journal are personal views of the authors and do not represent the view of this journal and the author's affiliated institutions. Authors retain the copyrights under this license, see our copyrights notice.
References
Abba, P. U. “Constitutionalising Environmental Rights for Sustainable Environmental Protection in Nigeria’s Niger Delta Region.” University of Exeter, 2018.
Adedeji, A, and R Ako. “Hindrances to Effective Legal Response to the Problem of Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta.” Unizik Law Journal 5 (2005): 420–22.
Adejonwo-Osho, O. “The Evolution of Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection in Nigeria,” n.d.
Amechi, Emelca Polycrap. “Itigating Right to Healthy Environment in Nigeria: An Examination of the Impacts of the Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules 2009, in Ensuring Access to Justice for Victims of Environmental Degradation.” Law, Environment and Development Journal 6, no. 3 (2010).
Anaebo, Onyeka K, and Eghosa O Ekhator. “Realising Substantive Rights to Healthy Environment in Nigeria: A Case for Constitutionalisation.” Environmental Law Review 17, no. 2 (2015).
Atsegbua, L, V Akpotaire, and F Dimowo. Environmental Law in Nigeria: Theory and Practice. 2nd ed. Benin City: Ambik Press, 2010.
A.G. Ondo State v A.G. Federation [2002] 9NWLR (pt 772).
Allan Irou v Shell BP (Unreported Suit No. W/89/91 Warri HC/26/11/73).
Archbishop Olubunmi Okogie & Ors v The Attorney General of Lagos State [1981] 2NCLR (pt 337) 350.
Archbishop Olubunmi Okogie & Ors v The Attorney General of Lagos State (n 15).
Attakoya Thangal v Union of India [1990] KLT 580.
Babalola, A. “The Right to a Clean Environment in Nigeria: A Fundamental Right?” Hastings Envt’l L.J 26, no. 1 (2020).
Bombay Dyeing & Manufacturing Company Ltd v Bombay Environmental Action Group & Ors (n 53).
Bombay Dyeing & Manufacturing Company Ltd. v Bombay Environmental Action Group & Ors [2006] AIR SC 1489.
Boyd, D. R. The Importance of Constitutional Recognition of the Right to a Healthy Environment. Paper 1: David Susiki Foundantion, 2013.
———. The Status of Constitutional Protection for the Environment in Other Nations. Paper Four: David Suziki Foundation, 2013.
Boyd, D. The Environmental Rights Revolution: A Global Study of Constitutions, Human Rights, and the Environment. UBD Press, 2012.
Boyle, A, and M Anderson. Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection. Claredon Press, 1996.
Can Environmental Law Really Help? An Update from the Trenches accessed 2 December 2021.
Canada’s Constitution of 1867 with Amendments through 2011, ss 96-100 (hereinafter, CoC)
Canadian Wildlife Federation, Inc. v Canada (Minister of the Environment) [1989] 3 F.C. 309 (T.D. Can.).
Castle-Crown Wilderness Coalition v Alberta (Director of Regulatory Assurance Division, Alberta Environment) [2005]
Centre for Oil Pollution Watch v Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation [2019]
Chief A. S. Amos & 4 Ors v Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Ltd & Niger Construction Company Ltd [1974] 4 ECSLR 486
Collins, L., and S. Lorne. “Approach to Constitutional Principles and Environmental Discretion in Canada.” U.B.C L. Rev. 52, no. 1 (2019).
Collins, Lynda M. “Safeguarding the Longue Durée: Environmental Rights in the Canadian Constitution.” The Supreme Court Law Review: Osgoode’s Annual Constitutional Cases Conference 71, no. 1 (2015). https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-8505.1322.
Constitution Act of Canada 1982 s. 52 (1)
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, s 6(1) & (2) (hereinafter, CFRN).
Cotton, R, and J S Zimmer. “Canadian Environmental Law: An Overview.” Canada-United State Law Journal 18 (1992).
Dam, Shubhankar, and Vivek Tewary. “Polluting Environment, Polluting Constitution: Is a ‘Polluted’ Constitution Worse than a Polluted Environment?” Journal of Environmental Law, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1093/jel/eqi029.
Defending the Rights of Chemical Valley Residents – Charter Challenge: Lockridge and Plain v Director, Ministry of the Environment et al.
Defending the Rights of Chemical Valley Residents – Charter Challenge: Lockridge and Plain v Director, Ministry of the Environment et al.
Defending the Rights of Chemical Valley Residents (n 134); Update: Lawsuit over Air Pollution in Chemical Valley Discontinued (n 134); See also the case of Kelly v Alberta (Energy & Utilities Board) [2008] ABCA 52.
Defending the Rights of Chemical Valley Residents (n 137); Update: Lawsuit over Air Pollution in Chemical Valley Discontinued (n 76); See also the case of Kelly v Alberta (Energy & Utilities Board) [2008] ABCA 52.
Duruike, P. “Climate Change Litigation and Corporate Accountability in Nigeria: The Pathway to Climate Justice?” The University of British Columbia, 2018.
Eaton, Joshua P. “The Nigerian Tragedy, Environmental Regulation of Transnational Corporations, and the Human Right to a Healthy Environment.” In International Crimes, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315092591-11.
Ebeku, Kaniye S.A. “Locus Standi in Environmental Nuisance Actions: A Perspective from the Commonwealth.” Environmental Law and Management, 2005.
Ebeku, Kaniye S A. “The Right to a Satisfactory Environment and the African Commission.” African Human Rights Law Journal 3 (2003).
Ekhator, Eghosa O. “IMPROVING ACCESS TO ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE UNDER THE AFRICAN CHARTER ON HUMAN AND PEOPLES’ RIGHTS: THE ROLES OF NGOS IN NIGERIA.” African Journal of International and Comparative Law, 2014. https://doi.org/10.3366/ajicl.2014.0080.
Ekpu, A. “Environmental Impact of Oil on Water: A Comparative Overview of Law and Policy in the United States and Nigeria.” Denver Journal of International Law 24, no. 1 (1995).
Emenike, Emejuru, M.A. Ebikake Nwanyanwu, and Chukwuma Ajie. “Right To A Healthy Environment In Nigeria And Other Jurisdictions: A Legal Assessment.” Global Journal of Politics and Law Research 8, no. 3 (2020).
Environmental Commissioner of Ontario, ‘Good Choices, Bad Choices: Environmental Rights and Environmental Protection in Ontario’ (24 October 2017) accessed 24 June 2020
Federal Countries: Canada, Forum of Federations-the Global Network on Federalism and Developed Governance
Federal Countries: India, Forum of Federations-the Global Network on Federalism and Developed Governance
Federal Countries: Nigeria, Forum of Federations-the Global Network on Federalism and Developed Governance
Friends of the Oldman River Society v Canada (Minister of Transport) [1992] 1 S.C.R. 3 at 63-64.
Gerhart, Gail M., and Jedrzej Georg Frynas. “Oil in Nigeria: Conflict and Litigation between Oil Companies and Village Communities.” Foreign Affairs 80, no. 2 (2001). https://doi.org/10.2307/20050128.
Grassy Narrows First Nation v Ontario (Minister of Natural Resources) [2014] SCC 48 (CanLII), [2014] 2 SCR 447.
Hunter v Southam Inc. [1984] 2 SCR 145 at 148.
Ijaiya, H. “Environmental Rights in Nigeria and India.” IJED 9, no. 2 (2012).
Indian cases of Kinkri Devi & Anor v State of Himachal Pradesh & Ors supra; People United for Better Living in Calcutta v State of West Bangel supra; and Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v Union of India supra, discussed in section 4.2.2 of this work, where the Indian courts decided that there should be a balance between economic development and environmental protection.
Indian Constitution of 1949
Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v Union of India [1996] AIR SC 1446.
Jonah Gbemre v Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Limited (Suit No.FHC/B/C/153/05 Judgement delivered on 14/11/2005 at Federal High Court, Benin Judicial Division).
Kinkri Devi & Anor v State of Himachal Pradesh & Ors [1988] AIR HP 4, 6 para. 4.
LK Koolwal v State of Rajasthan & Ors [1988] AIR Raj.2.
Lockridge v Ontario (Director, Ministry of the Environment) [2012] O.J. No. 3016, 68 C.E.L.R. (3d) 27, 350 D.L.R. (4th) 720 (Ont. Div. Ct.).
Lockridge v Ontario (Director, Ministry of the Environment) [2012] O.J. No. 3016, 68 C.E.L.R. (3d) 27, 350 D.L.R. (4th) 720 (Ont. Div. Ct.).
M. C. Mehta v Union of India [1996] 4 SCC 351.
Mathur v Union of India [1996] 1 SCC 119.
M Thibodeau, Grassy Narrows v Ontario: A Legal Battle Against Logging Lost, The Political Fight Continues, 15 September 2015 accessed 24 July 2021.
M Thibodeau, Grassy Narrows v Ontario: A Legal Battle Against Logging Lost, The Political Fight Continues, 15 September 2015 accessed 24 July 2021.
Mclean, J. “Indigenous Activist Taking Province to Court over Air Pollution Regulations.” Toronto Star, 2017.
Mmadu, R A. “Judicial Attitude to Environmental Litigation and Access to Environmental Justice in Nigeria: Lessons from Kiobel.” Afe Babalola University: Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy 2, no. 1 (2013).
Morden, P. “Lawsuit Claims Ontario Failed to Keep Promise to Review Regulations.” Toronto Star, 2017.
Nanda, A. “Heavy Oil Processing in Peace River, Alberta: A Case Study on the Scope of Section 7 of the Charter in the Environmental Realm.” Envtl L & Prac. 27 (2015).
NNPC v Fawehinmi [1998] 7NWLR (pt 559).
Odong, Nsikan-abasi. “Realizing and Enforcing the Constitutional Right to a Healthy Environment in the Niger-Delta : Lessons from India” 7, no. 5 (2017): 35–54.
Olarewaju, F. “Reappraising the Nigerian Constitution for Environmental Management.” AAU Law Journal 1, no. 1 (2002).
Onifade, T T. “Legal and Institutional Framework for Promoting Environmental Sustainability in Nigeria through Renewable Energy: Possible Lessons from Brazil, China and India.” University of Ibadan, 2014.
Oronto-Douglas v Shell Petroleum Development Company & 5 Ors (Unreported Suit No. FHC/CS? 573/96. Delivered on 17th February 1997).
Oronto-Douglas v Shell Petroleum development Corporation & 5 Ors (n 24).
Oyewo, O. “Locus Standi and Administrative Law in Nigeria: Need for Clarity of Approach by the Courts.” International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Technology 3, no. 1 (2016).
Pembina Institute for Appropriate Development v Canada (Attorney General) [2008] FC 302.
People United for Better Living in Calcutta v State of West Bangel [1993] AIR Cal. pp.92-93.
Powell, B.H. Environmental Assessment & the Canadian Constitution: Substitution and Equivalency. Canada: Environmental Law Centre: Alberta, 2015.
Rhuks, T. “The Judicial Recognition and Enforcement of the Right to Environment: Differing Perspectives from Nigeria and India.” NUJL L.Rev 3 (2010).
Roy, S. “Fiduciary Duties under the Trusteeship Theory: The Contribution of Canadian Case Law in Judicial Review of Environmental Matters.” Vermont Law Review 43 (2019).
R v Hydro-Québec [1997] 3 S.C.R. 213.
Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra & Ors v State of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) & Ors [1985] AIR 652, SCR (3) 169.
Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra & Ors v State of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) & Ors;
Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra & Ors v State of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) & Ors [1985] AIR 652, SCR (3) 169.
Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra & Ors v State of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) & Ors;
Salman, Raheem Kolawole, and F.J Oniekoro. “DEATH OF LOCUS STANDI AND THE REBIRTH OF PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGATION IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN NIGERIA: FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS (ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURE) RULES 2009 IN FOCUS.” IIUM Law Journal 23, no. 1 (2015). https://doi.org/10.31436/iiumlj.v23i1.127.
Saxe, D. Environmental Offences: Corporate Responsibility and Executive Liability. Aurora: On: Canada Law Book, 1990.
Sharma, R. “Green Courts in India: Strengthening Environmental Governance?” Law, Environment and Development Journal4 4 (2008).
Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Ltd v Chief Otoko & Ors (1990) 6 NWLR (pt. 159) 693.
Stevenson, Colin P. “A New Perspective on Environmental Rights after the Charter.” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 21, no. 3 (1983). https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.1956.
Subhash Kumar v State of Bihar [1991] AIR SC 420.
Supremacy of the Constitution-Constitutional Law in Canada accessed 24 September 2021.
Supreme Court of India: Composition, Power and Functions (n 11); The Union Judiciary (n 5).
Supreme Court of India: Composition, Power and Functions accessed 27 April 2022.
T. Damodhar Rao v Municipal Corporation, Hyderabad [1987] AIR (A.P.) 171.
The Indian cases of Subhash Kumar v State of Bihar and T. Damodhar Rao v Municipal Corporation, Hyderabad discussed in section 3.2.1 of this work, where the Indian courts enforced non-justiciable constitutional principles by recognizing environmental rights as an inherent component of the already existing fundamental human right to life.
The Nigerian cases of Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Ltd v Chief Otoko & Ors (n 25); Chief A. S. Amos & 4 Ors v Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Ltd and Niger Construction Company Ltd (n 27).
The Oil Pipelines Act Cap 7, 2004); Advocate Law Practice, Litigation Update: Operators and Owners of Oil Pipelines have a Duty to Maintain and Repair their Oil Pipelines accessed 23 August 2021.
The Union Judiciary i.e. The Supreme Court (Articles 124-147)
Uchenna Jerome, Orji. “Enhancing the Implementation of Sustainable Development in Nigeria through Legal Strategies.” Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development 8, no. 1 (2012).
Ugbaja, Francesca. “Regulation of Environmental Pollution in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry: The Need for an Alternative Approach.” University of Calgary, 2016. https://prism.ucalgary.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/2f7943bd-6a35-4477-8edc-fc5aef22caa0/content.
Ugde, R O, and M E Umo. “Enforcement Provisions of Major Environmental Law Regimes in Nigeria.” University of Ibadan Law Journal, 2015.
Wortsman, L. “‘GREENING’ THE CHARTER: SECTION 7 AND THE RIGHT TO A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT.: EBSCOhost.” Dalhousie Journal of Legal Studies, no. 28 (2019).
Wruck, H. “The Time Has Arrived for a Canadian Public Trust Doctrine Based upon the Unwritten Constitution.” George Washington Journal of Energy and Environmental Law 10, no. 2 (2020).
V Oak, Role of PIL in Environmental Protection in India accessed 20 August 2021.
V. Lakshmipathy v State of Karnataka (n 42).
V. Lakshmipathy v State of Karnataka [1992] AIR Kant 57.
Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v Union of India
Virender Gaur v State of Haryana [1995]
Adedeji, A, and R Ako. “Hindrances to Effective Legal Response to the Problem of Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta.” Unizik Law Journal 5 (2005): 420–22.
Adejonwo-Osho, O. “The Evolution of Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection in Nigeria,” n.d.
Amechi, Emelca Polycrap. “Itigating Right to Healthy Environment in Nigeria: An Examination of the Impacts of the Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules 2009, in Ensuring Access to Justice for Victims of Environmental Degradation.” Law, Environment and Development Journal 6, no. 3 (2010).
Anaebo, Onyeka K, and Eghosa O Ekhator. “Realising Substantive Rights to Healthy Environment in Nigeria: A Case for Constitutionalisation.” Environmental Law Review 17, no. 2 (2015).
Atsegbua, L, V Akpotaire, and F Dimowo. Environmental Law in Nigeria: Theory and Practice. 2nd ed. Benin City: Ambik Press, 2010.
A.G. Ondo State v A.G. Federation [2002] 9NWLR (pt 772).
Allan Irou v Shell BP (Unreported Suit No. W/89/91 Warri HC/26/11/73).
Archbishop Olubunmi Okogie & Ors v The Attorney General of Lagos State [1981] 2NCLR (pt 337) 350.
Archbishop Olubunmi Okogie & Ors v The Attorney General of Lagos State (n 15).
Attakoya Thangal v Union of India [1990] KLT 580.
Babalola, A. “The Right to a Clean Environment in Nigeria: A Fundamental Right?” Hastings Envt’l L.J 26, no. 1 (2020).
Bombay Dyeing & Manufacturing Company Ltd v Bombay Environmental Action Group & Ors (n 53).
Bombay Dyeing & Manufacturing Company Ltd. v Bombay Environmental Action Group & Ors [2006] AIR SC 1489.
Boyd, D. R. The Importance of Constitutional Recognition of the Right to a Healthy Environment. Paper 1: David Susiki Foundantion, 2013.
———. The Status of Constitutional Protection for the Environment in Other Nations. Paper Four: David Suziki Foundation, 2013.
Boyd, D. The Environmental Rights Revolution: A Global Study of Constitutions, Human Rights, and the Environment. UBD Press, 2012.
Boyle, A, and M Anderson. Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection. Claredon Press, 1996.
Can Environmental Law Really Help? An Update from the Trenches
Canada’s Constitution of 1867 with Amendments through 2011, ss 96-100 (hereinafter, CoC)
Canadian Wildlife Federation, Inc. v Canada (Minister of the Environment) [1989] 3 F.C. 309 (T.D. Can.).
Castle-Crown Wilderness Coalition v Alberta (Director of Regulatory Assurance Division, Alberta Environment) [2005]
Centre for Oil Pollution Watch v Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation [2019]
Chief A. S. Amos & 4 Ors v Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Ltd & Niger Construction Company Ltd [1974] 4 ECSLR 486
Collins, L., and S. Lorne. “Approach to Constitutional Principles and Environmental Discretion in Canada.” U.B.C L. Rev. 52, no. 1 (2019).
Collins, Lynda M. “Safeguarding the Longue Durée: Environmental Rights in the Canadian Constitution.” The Supreme Court Law Review: Osgoode’s Annual Constitutional Cases Conference 71, no. 1 (2015). https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-8505.1322.
Constitution Act of Canada 1982 s. 52 (1)
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, s 6(1) & (2) (hereinafter, CFRN).
Cotton, R, and J S Zimmer. “Canadian Environmental Law: An Overview.” Canada-United State Law Journal 18 (1992).
Dam, Shubhankar, and Vivek Tewary. “Polluting Environment, Polluting Constitution: Is a ‘Polluted’ Constitution Worse than a Polluted Environment?” Journal of Environmental Law, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1093/jel/eqi029.
Defending the Rights of Chemical Valley Residents – Charter Challenge: Lockridge and Plain v Director, Ministry of the Environment et al.
Defending the Rights of Chemical Valley Residents – Charter Challenge: Lockridge and Plain v Director, Ministry of the Environment et al.
Defending the Rights of Chemical Valley Residents (n 134); Update: Lawsuit over Air Pollution in Chemical Valley Discontinued (n 134); See also the case of Kelly v Alberta (Energy & Utilities Board) [2008] ABCA 52.
Defending the Rights of Chemical Valley Residents (n 137); Update: Lawsuit over Air Pollution in Chemical Valley Discontinued (n 76); See also the case of Kelly v Alberta (Energy & Utilities Board) [2008] ABCA 52.
Duruike, P. “Climate Change Litigation and Corporate Accountability in Nigeria: The Pathway to Climate Justice?” The University of British Columbia, 2018.
Eaton, Joshua P. “The Nigerian Tragedy, Environmental Regulation of Transnational Corporations, and the Human Right to a Healthy Environment.” In International Crimes, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315092591-11.
Ebeku, Kaniye S.A. “Locus Standi in Environmental Nuisance Actions: A Perspective from the Commonwealth.” Environmental Law and Management, 2005.
Ebeku, Kaniye S A. “The Right to a Satisfactory Environment and the African Commission.” African Human Rights Law Journal 3 (2003).
Ekhator, Eghosa O. “IMPROVING ACCESS TO ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE UNDER THE AFRICAN CHARTER ON HUMAN AND PEOPLES’ RIGHTS: THE ROLES OF NGOS IN NIGERIA.” African Journal of International and Comparative Law, 2014. https://doi.org/10.3366/ajicl.2014.0080.
Ekpu, A. “Environmental Impact of Oil on Water: A Comparative Overview of Law and Policy in the United States and Nigeria.” Denver Journal of International Law 24, no. 1 (1995).
Emenike, Emejuru, M.A. Ebikake Nwanyanwu, and Chukwuma Ajie. “Right To A Healthy Environment In Nigeria And Other Jurisdictions: A Legal Assessment.” Global Journal of Politics and Law Research 8, no. 3 (2020).
Environmental Commissioner of Ontario, ‘Good Choices, Bad Choices: Environmental Rights and Environmental Protection in Ontario’ (24 October 2017)
Federal Countries: Canada, Forum of Federations-the Global Network on Federalism and Developed Governance
Federal Countries: India, Forum of Federations-the Global Network on Federalism and Developed Governance
Federal Countries: Nigeria, Forum of Federations-the Global Network on Federalism and Developed Governance
Friends of the Oldman River Society v Canada (Minister of Transport) [1992] 1 S.C.R. 3 at 63-64.
Gerhart, Gail M., and Jedrzej Georg Frynas. “Oil in Nigeria: Conflict and Litigation between Oil Companies and Village Communities.” Foreign Affairs 80, no. 2 (2001). https://doi.org/10.2307/20050128.
Grassy Narrows First Nation v Ontario (Minister of Natural Resources) [2014] SCC 48 (CanLII), [2014] 2 SCR 447.
Hunter v Southam Inc. [1984] 2 SCR 145 at 148.
Ijaiya, H. “Environmental Rights in Nigeria and India.” IJED 9, no. 2 (2012).
Indian cases of Kinkri Devi & Anor v State of Himachal Pradesh & Ors supra; People United for Better Living in Calcutta v State of West Bangel supra; and Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v Union of India supra, discussed in section 4.2.2 of this work, where the Indian courts decided that there should be a balance between economic development and environmental protection.
Indian Constitution of 1949
Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v Union of India [1996] AIR SC 1446.
Jonah Gbemre v Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Limited (Suit No.FHC/B/C/153/05 Judgement delivered on 14/11/2005 at Federal High Court, Benin Judicial Division).
Kinkri Devi & Anor v State of Himachal Pradesh & Ors [1988] AIR HP 4, 6 para. 4.
LK Koolwal v State of Rajasthan & Ors [1988] AIR Raj.2.
Lockridge v Ontario (Director, Ministry of the Environment) [2012] O.J. No. 3016, 68 C.E.L.R. (3d) 27, 350 D.L.R. (4th) 720 (Ont. Div. Ct.).
Lockridge v Ontario (Director, Ministry of the Environment) [2012] O.J. No. 3016, 68 C.E.L.R. (3d) 27, 350 D.L.R. (4th) 720 (Ont. Div. Ct.).
M. C. Mehta v Union of India [1996] 4 SCC 351.
Mathur v Union of India [1996] 1 SCC 119.
M Thibodeau, Grassy Narrows v Ontario: A Legal Battle Against Logging Lost, The Political Fight Continues, 15 September 2015
M Thibodeau, Grassy Narrows v Ontario: A Legal Battle Against Logging Lost, The Political Fight Continues, 15 September 2015
Mclean, J. “Indigenous Activist Taking Province to Court over Air Pollution Regulations.” Toronto Star, 2017.
Mmadu, R A. “Judicial Attitude to Environmental Litigation and Access to Environmental Justice in Nigeria: Lessons from Kiobel.” Afe Babalola University: Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy 2, no. 1 (2013).
Morden, P. “Lawsuit Claims Ontario Failed to Keep Promise to Review Regulations.” Toronto Star, 2017.
Nanda, A. “Heavy Oil Processing in Peace River, Alberta: A Case Study on the Scope of Section 7 of the Charter in the Environmental Realm.” Envtl L & Prac. 27 (2015).
NNPC v Fawehinmi [1998] 7NWLR (pt 559).
Odong, Nsikan-abasi. “Realizing and Enforcing the Constitutional Right to a Healthy Environment in the Niger-Delta : Lessons from India” 7, no. 5 (2017): 35–54.
Olarewaju, F. “Reappraising the Nigerian Constitution for Environmental Management.” AAU Law Journal 1, no. 1 (2002).
Onifade, T T. “Legal and Institutional Framework for Promoting Environmental Sustainability in Nigeria through Renewable Energy: Possible Lessons from Brazil, China and India.” University of Ibadan, 2014.
Oronto-Douglas v Shell Petroleum Development Company & 5 Ors (Unreported Suit No. FHC/CS? 573/96. Delivered on 17th February 1997).
Oronto-Douglas v Shell Petroleum development Corporation & 5 Ors (n 24).
Oyewo, O. “Locus Standi and Administrative Law in Nigeria: Need for Clarity of Approach by the Courts.” International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Technology 3, no. 1 (2016).
Pembina Institute for Appropriate Development v Canada (Attorney General) [2008] FC 302.
People United for Better Living in Calcutta v State of West Bangel [1993] AIR Cal. pp.92-93.
Powell, B.H. Environmental Assessment & the Canadian Constitution: Substitution and Equivalency. Canada: Environmental Law Centre: Alberta, 2015.
Rhuks, T. “The Judicial Recognition and Enforcement of the Right to Environment: Differing Perspectives from Nigeria and India.” NUJL L.Rev 3 (2010).
Roy, S. “Fiduciary Duties under the Trusteeship Theory: The Contribution of Canadian Case Law in Judicial Review of Environmental Matters.” Vermont Law Review 43 (2019).
R v Hydro-Québec [1997] 3 S.C.R. 213.
Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra & Ors v State of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) & Ors [1985] AIR 652, SCR (3) 169.
Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra & Ors v State of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) & Ors
Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra & Ors v State of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) & Ors [1985] AIR 652, SCR (3) 169.
Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra & Ors v State of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) & Ors
Salman, Raheem Kolawole, and F.J Oniekoro. “DEATH OF LOCUS STANDI AND THE REBIRTH OF PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGATION IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN NIGERIA: FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS (ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURE) RULES 2009 IN FOCUS.” IIUM Law Journal 23, no. 1 (2015). https://doi.org/10.31436/iiumlj.v23i1.127.
Saxe, D. Environmental Offences: Corporate Responsibility and Executive Liability. Aurora: On: Canada Law Book, 1990.
Sharma, R. “Green Courts in India: Strengthening Environmental Governance?” Law, Environment and Development Journal4 4 (2008).
Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Ltd v Chief Otoko & Ors (1990) 6 NWLR (pt. 159) 693.
Stevenson, Colin P. “A New Perspective on Environmental Rights after the Charter.” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 21, no. 3 (1983). https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.1956.
Subhash Kumar v State of Bihar [1991] AIR SC 420.
Supremacy of the Constitution-Constitutional Law in Canada
Supreme Court of India: Composition, Power and Functions (n 11); The Union Judiciary (n 5).
Supreme Court of India: Composition, Power and Functions
T. Damodhar Rao v Municipal Corporation, Hyderabad [1987] AIR (A.P.) 171.
The Indian cases of Subhash Kumar v State of Bihar and T. Damodhar Rao v Municipal Corporation, Hyderabad discussed in section 3.2.1 of this work, where the Indian courts enforced non-justiciable constitutional principles by recognizing environmental rights as an inherent component of the already existing fundamental human right to life.
The Nigerian cases of Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Ltd v Chief Otoko & Ors (n 25); Chief A. S. Amos & 4 Ors v Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Ltd and Niger Construction Company Ltd (n 27).
The Oil Pipelines Act Cap 7, 2004); Advocate Law Practice, Litigation Update: Operators and Owners of Oil Pipelines have a Duty to Maintain and Repair their Oil Pipelines
The Union Judiciary i.e. The Supreme Court (Articles 124-147)
Uchenna Jerome, Orji. “Enhancing the Implementation of Sustainable Development in Nigeria through Legal Strategies.” Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development 8, no. 1 (2012).
Ugbaja, Francesca. “Regulation of Environmental Pollution in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry: The Need for an Alternative Approach.” University of Calgary, 2016. https://prism.ucalgary.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/2f7943bd-6a35-4477-8edc-fc5aef22caa0/content.
Ugde, R O, and M E Umo. “Enforcement Provisions of Major Environmental Law Regimes in Nigeria.” University of Ibadan Law Journal, 2015.
Wortsman, L. “‘GREENING’ THE CHARTER: SECTION 7 AND THE RIGHT TO A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT.: EBSCOhost.” Dalhousie Journal of Legal Studies, no. 28 (2019).
Wruck, H. “The Time Has Arrived for a Canadian Public Trust Doctrine Based upon the Unwritten Constitution.” George Washington Journal of Energy and Environmental Law 10, no. 2 (2020).
V Oak, Role of PIL in Environmental Protection in India
V. Lakshmipathy v State of Karnataka (n 42).
V. Lakshmipathy v State of Karnataka [1992] AIR Kant 57.
Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v Union of India
Virender Gaur v State of Haryana [1995]