Determinant Factors of Students ’ Entrepreneurial Intention : A Comparative Study

The research aims to analyze the impact of entrepreneurial education along with Shapero’s theory of entrepreneurial events on students’ entrepreneurial intention. The research is also addressed to compare entrepreneurial intention of students lived in Jakarta and Garut city. The research method used is a survey and causal approach. Simple random sampling was used as the technique to select sample (413 respondents) from both cities. The sample size is adjusted to the model of analysis used in structural equation modeling (SEM). The research revealed that entrepreneurship education has a significant impact on perceived desirability, perceived feasibility and perceived propensity to act. This study also found that perceived desirability, perceived feasibility and perceived propensity to act were insignificant to influence students’ entrepreneurial intention. The research findings suggest an agenda regarding a modification of entrepreneurship-oriented curriculum and creating school entrepreneurial atmosphere. Suggestions for future research are discussed..

entrepreneurship and influencing students' attitude that will generate interest.The second is an education that aims to encourage a person being able to establish a business (education for Start-Up).This program is intended for people who have business ideas and need solutions to answer the question of how to become self-employed.The third is an education for entrepreneurial dynamism, an education given to people who run a business but want to improve their business behavior after going through the initial phase of business establishment.The fourth is continuing education for entrepreneurs, a long-life education for experienced entrepreneurs.Therefore, in entrepreneurship education, it should be emphasized that no teaching and learning model is considered the best when compared with others.Each model has characteristics and can be applied under different conditions (Berglund, and Johansson, 2007;Leffler, 2009).
In line with the different types of entrepreneurship education, this results in various research perspectives and streams on entrepreneurship education.The first stream focuses on the role of entrepreneurship programs on the individual and society.The second research stream is concerned with the systemization of entrepreneurship programs, for example, the use of multimedia environments or curriculum development.The third-stream studies the content and its delivery in entrepreneurship programs, and the fourth stream concentrates on the needs of individual participants in entrepreneurship programs (Lorz, 2011).Some studies documented a significant impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial intention.For example, Hattab (2014) studies in Egypt involving university

INTRODUCTION
The government of Indonesia is concerned to increase the number of new entrepreneurs.Reproducing new entrepreneurs is considered as strategic policy for reducing unemployment and poor people (Purwana, Suhud, Fatimah & Armelita, 2018).By becoming an entrepreneur, someone will become more independent, both financially and mentally and can create jobs (Fadiati & Purwana, 2011).Entrepreneurship is one of the fundamental fields in the economy (Bruyat & Julien, 2001), and even entrepreneurship can be considered as the primary choice for dealing with the changing demands of the highly dynamic era (Bainée, 2013).The importance of encouraging entrepreneurship as a way of enhancing economic development and preparing generations capable of creating selfemployment (Liñán, Rodríguez-Cohard, & Rueda-Cantuche, 2011).
Entrepreneurship education plays a significant role in boosting the number of new entrepreneurs in a country, especially for low and middle-income countries.Entrepreneurship education has a broad definition, covering economic, social and cultural factors.Therefore, entrepreneurship education is a dynamic process and social processes.In these processes, an individual or group identifies opportunities for innovation and transforms ideas into practices and activities in social, cultural and economic contexts.In addition to equipping knowledge and attitude, the goal of entrepreneurship education is as an effort to create entrepreneurial awareness (Lorz, 2011;Quality Assurance Agency, 2012).Entrepreneurship awareness itself can be gained by providing experience to learners (Sari & Poikkijoki, 2006), both obtained through extra-curricular activities (Quality Assurance Agency, 2012), as well as individual reflection (Sari & Poikkijoki, 2006).Liñán (2004) divides entrepreneurship education into four categories.The first is entrepreneurial awareness education, an education aimed at increasing knowledge of nati, and Al-Laham (2007), Zhang, Duysters, and Cloodt (2014), Li, Wu, and Wu (2008), and Purwana, Suhud, and Rahayu (2017).However, the existing studies are rarely focused on secondary school students as the research samples.
An intention strongly determines the behavior of a person in achieving the goal since there is seriousness or commitment to doing an action (Cohen & Levesque, 1990).According to Gibbs ( 2004), an intention is a psychological state that represents one's plan of what will be done and based on a desire that can be achieved.Researchers in entrepreneurship field used two main theories as a foundation to investigate entrepreneurial intention as a predictor of entrepreneurial behavior.The first is the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991).The second is the Theory of Entrepreneurial Event (Shapero, and Sokol, 1982).
An intention is an important factor in the formation of one's behavior referred to the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB).According to the TPB, the intention has three independent determinants: attitude toward behavior, perceived behavioral control (PBC) and subjective norms.The attitude toward behavior refers to the appeal of such behavior, or to the degree to which the individual holds a positive or negative personal evaluation of it.The second determinant is PBC, i. e. the perceived ease or difficulty in managing that behavior.This concept is similar to self-perceived capacity.Finally, the subjective norms measure the perception that the person has the support received from family, friends and other significant people for the individual when carrying out a particular behavior.An intention is the best predictor of behavior, representing a person's readiness to carry out a certain behavior especially when the behavior was scarce, difficult to observe, and involves unpredictable time lags (Ajzen, 2005).
The Theory of Entrepreneurial Events (TEE) developed by Shapero and Sokol (1982) identifies three important variables, namely perceived feasibility, perceived desirability, and propensity to act.Perceived feasibility is defined as the degree to which people think they are capable of initiating successfully a business.Perceived desirability can be interpreted as how attractive the idea of starting up a business is.Furthermore, propensity to act is conceptualized as a personal characteristic.The propensity to act according to Shapero and Sokol (1982) is more related to the locus of control.All three variables are used to predict one's entrepreneurial intentions.TEE assumes that a person has a direction to go with which is influenced by factors important things around them, such as family, work, social status, funding ability, cultural values, education.and others that will lead to one's behavior.The formation process of behavior may undergo a change caused by trigger events, whether positive, neutral or negative.The existence of a positive trigger event will encourage a person to realize his intention to run a business.Therefore, the goal of becoming an entrepreneur must start with a strong intention because the entrepreneurial act is often done deliberately.
An entrepreneurial intention is the intention of an individual to start a new business (Engle et al., 2010).It also refers to the commitment to start a new business (Urban, Van Vuuren, & Owen, 2008).Gurbuz and Aykol (2008) stated that entrepreneurial intention is one's willingness in undertaking an entrepreneurial activity, or in other words become self-employed.Saptono (2017) synthesized entrepreneurship intention as someone's choice that is accompanied by the commitment to entrepreneurship as indicated by the desire to start entrepreneurship, the need for entrepreneurship, the effort to start entrepreneurship, the preparations to start entrepreneurship, the possibility to start entrepreneurs, and the targets to start entrepreneurship.Krueger et al. (2000) formulate indicators to measure entrepreneurial intention consist of the desire to own a business in the near future and work hard to own a business.Engel et al. ( 2010) measure a person's entrepreneurial intention using indicators, such as consider, prepare, the probability of realizing the interest in entrepreneurship.Entrepreneurial intention indicators used by Boissin, Branchet, Emin, and Herbert (2009) are the probability to establish a new business after graduation, the probability of pursuing a career in the company as an employee, and a preference for entrepreneurship.
This current research aims to analyze and compare the determinant factors of students' entrepreneurial intention in two cities: Jakarta and Garut.The reason to select these two cities is to understand the behavioral intention of students who live in a big city and those who live in a small city.In terms of environment support, the authors assumed that the students lived in a big city had high motivation becoming an entrepreneur.

METHODS
The research method used a survey with the causal approach.A total of 413 secondary students from Jakarta and Garut were selected as research sample conveniently.The sample size is adjusted to the model of analysis used in structural equation modeling (SEM).A five-Likert scale instrument was used to collect the data.The instrument consisted of several indicators from previous studies.The entrepreneurial intention indicators constructed by Robledo, Arán, Sanchez, and Molina (2015) were adopted.To measure perceived feasibility and propensity to act, the authors adapted the indicators from Lepoutre, Van den Berghe, Tilleuil, and Crijns (2010), Lucas andCooper (2012), andAli, Lu, andWang (2012).Indicators developed by Luke and Cooper (2012) and Lepoutre et al. (2010) were adapted to measure perceived desirability.Further, entrepreneurial education indicators were adapted from Denanyoh, Adjei, and Nyemekye (2015) and Opoku-Antwi, Amofah, Nyamaah-Koffuor, and Yakubu (2012).
Data were analyzed in two stages.The first stage used exploratory factor analysis (EFA).This analysis aimed to determine which dimensions and indicators can be used to measure the variables, followed by reliability test for each dimension or variable.According to Hair Jr. et al. ( 2006), a factor or variable is reliable if it has a Cronbach's alpha score of 0.7 or more.The second stage was structu-ral equation model.To obtain a fit model, the authors determine four criteria; probability (> 0.05) and CMIN/ DF (≤0.2).Also, CFI (≤1) and RMSEA (≤0.05).The path is significant if it has C.R. value or t-value of 1.98 or more (Holmes-Smith, 2010).(Elfving, Brännback, & Carsrud, 2009;Miralles, Riverola, & Giones, 2012;Segal, Borgia, & Schoenfeld, 2005).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A limited number of Indonesian scholars used the model to investigate the entrepreneurial intention (Anggraeni & Harnanik, 2015;Kuncoro & Rusdianto, 2016).The authors found that there is a lack of study in the field of entrepreneurship applying the  Based on the research model, the following six hypotheses will be tested: H1 = Entrepreneurial education will impact on perceived desirability H2 = Entrepreneurial education will impact on perceived feasibility H3 = Entrepreneurial education will impact on perceived propensity to act H4 = Perceived desirability will impact on entrepreneurial intention H5 = Perceived feasibility will impact on entrepreneurial intention H6 = Perceived propensity to act on entrepreneurial intention.

Respondents' Profile
The study was conducted in Jakarta and Garut (table 1).208 students had been selected as respondents from the number of secondary schools in Jakarta.The selected respondents in Jakarta consisted of 56 male (26.9%) and 152 female (73.1%) students.A total of 205 students were involved as respondents in Garut, with a composition of 104 male (50.7%), and 101 female (49.3%).Respondents of the study showed that a total of 116 students in Jakarta indicated that their parents did not have their own business, while the rest stated that their parents had their own business.A total of 150 students lived in Garut indicated that their parents had a business, and 55 students had no business.Type of their parents' business is various e.g.service, retail, garment, farms, and agriculture.The study also explored whether the respondents had an intention to continue their parent's business in the future (table 3).Of the total respondents who stated their parents had a business, 48 students lived in Jakarta would continue their parents business, while 44 students were not interested.98 students lived in Garut said they would not continue their parents' business, while 52 students said the opposite.For the purpose of study, the authors analyzed the collected data using exploratory factor analysis.This analysis is a way to validate the data as well as to explore dimensions and retain firmed indicators and followed by a reliability test.According to Hair Jr. et al. ( 2006), an alpha score must at least 0.70.If there is a factor or dimension that has an alpha score less than 0.70, it is considered less reliable.However, in this study, even the smallest scores are still considered to be tested in the CFA.Table 4 figures the summary results of EFA.

Perceived Feasibility
In this study perceived feasibility is defined as the degree to which the students think capable of initiating successfully a business.Perceived feasibility is similar to Perceived behavior control of Azjen's Theory of Planned Behavior.Six indicators to measure perceived feasibility persisted after EFA testing.Of the six indicators, divided into two dimensions, each consists of three indicators.In the context of Jakarta, all survived indicators have alpha Cronbach (α) ranging from the lowest score of 0.567 to 0.907.Meanwhile, for Garut samples the alpha Cronbach (α) score is ranging from -0.475 to 0.879.

Perceived Desirability
Perceived desirability is defined as how attractive the idea of starting up a business is for the students.Perceived desirability is quite similar to the attitude and subjective norm in Azjen's Theory of Planned Behavior.The EFA calculation produces three dimensions for perceived desirability.The first dimension consists of five indicators, while the second dimension consists of four indicators.The last dimension consists of two indicators.The result shows all indicators have alpha Cronbach (α) ranging from the lowest score of 0.541 to 0.833 (Jakarta).Meanwhile, for Garut samples the alpha Cronbach (α) score is ranging from 0.440 to 0.824.

Perceived Propensity to Act
For the purpose of study, propensity to act is conceptualized as a student's personal characteristic reflected entrepreneur traits.The propensity to act indicates one's impulse to behave and varies widely for each individual in terms of its intensity.The EFA result shows that perceived propensity to act retains six groups of indicators in two dimensions.All survived indicators have alpha Cronbach (α) ranging from the lowest score of -0.723 to 0.863 (Jakarta), and 0.539 to 0.865 (Garut).

Entrepreneurial Education
Entrepreneurial education is defined as students' experiences related to entrepreneurship lessons at school.Entrepreneurial education factors, such as through lessons, seminars, skill practice in entrepreneurship are the factors that play a significant role in improving the positive impression and student' interest to become an entrepreneur.The EFA result for entrepreneurship education shows two dimensions with each of the four indicators.All indicators are survived with alpha Cronbach (α) ranged from the lowest score of 0.646 to 0.873 (Jakarta).Meanwhile, for Garut samples the alpha Cronbach (α) score ranges from 0.562 to 0.903.

Entrepreneurial Intention
Entrepreneurial intention in this study is defined as students' willingness to start a new business in the future.It is the tendency of individual desire to do entrepreneurial action with creating new products through business opportunities and risk-taking.The EFA result for entrepreneurial intention indicates that there are two dimensions generated by entrepreneurial intention.The first dimension consists of three indicators, while the second dimension consists of two indicators.In the context of Jakarta, all survived indicators have alpha Cronbach (α) ranging from the lowest score of 0.770 to 0.906.Meanwhile, for Garut samples the alpha Cronbach (α) score is ranging from 0.588 to 0.783.
Figure 2 shows the structural model of the Jakarta study.It demonstrates a fitted model with a probability, CMIN/DF, CFI, and RMSEA scores of 0.  Continuing the confirmatory factor analysis, the authors tested six hypotheses developed by verifying the C.R. and probability values.Table 5 indicates the results of hypotheses testing of the two cases.The results can be grouped into two categories.The first category describes that three hypotheses (H1, H2, and H3) were accepted (CR > 2.0).Thus, this study revealed that entrepreneurial education had a significant impact on students' perceived desirability, perceived feasibility and perceived propensity to act.It implies that the more students equipped with entrepreneurship subjects, the higher their perceived desirability, perceived feasibility and perceived propensity to act.
The second category shows that three hypotheses were rejected (H4, H5, and H6).The rejections were due to the insignificance of the C.R. scores (C.R < 2.0).Thus, perceived desirability, perceived feasibility and perceived propensity to act had no effect on students' entrepreneurial intention significantly.It implies that the higher degree of students' perceived desirability, perceived feasibility, and perceived propensity did not increase the level of entrepreneurial intention.
This study proves that the three variables constructed in the Shapero's model cannot mediate the impact of entrepreneurial education on entrepreneurial intention.There are always possibilities to be suspected contributing to the findings: the quality of the instrument and the respondents selected.All the indicators used were adapted from prior studies which are in English.The authors translated and adapted them.In addition, respondents were chosen conveniently in classes.There might be a situation that they were inconvenient to fill out the instrument.
In terms of entrepreneurial education, there is a need for understanding how to develop and encourage students to be young entrepreneurs while they are in school.Attitude, knowledge and their behavior on entrepreneurship will shape their tendency to open up new ventures in the future.However, this study proved that although students are expected to be entrepreneurs in the future, it is too early to expect them to start up a new venture.This study implies practical and policy implications related to the needs for evaluating the curriculum, the teachers' capacity, and the entrepreneurship-oriented environment of schools.Teaching entrepreneurship, for example, should not be the same as teaching other subjects in the school.Teaching and learning methods applied in the class should stimulate students' creativity and innovation.

CONCLUSION
This study aims to test Shapero's model to predict students' entrepreneurial intention by modifying the model.According to a number of researchers, Shapero's theory of entrepreneurial event is more accurate in predicting entrepreneurial behavior.However, the previous studies used the similar model resulted in various conclusions depending on the conditions and situation, location, model, object, subject, time, variable, analysis, target, and purposes.In this case, the authors added entrepreneurship education variables.The authors made a comparison of entrepreneurial intention amongst secondary students in Jakarta and Garut district.The study contributes an insight of how secondary students lived in both cities perceive entrepreneurial education in relation to their entrepreneurial intentions.
In the model tested to students lived in Jakarta, three hypotheses were accepted, and three hypotheses were rejected.Three accepted hypotheses have a positive and significant impact of entrepreneurial education on perceived desirability, perceived feasibility, and perceived propensity to act.In contrast, these three variables cannot predict the entrepreneurial intention.The similar results occurred to respondents in Garut.The research found that there were no different results empirically regarding the students' entrepreneurial intention in Jakarta and Garut.The authors draw a conclusion that the Shapero's model cannot be entirely used to predict the entrepreneurial intention of secondary students.
It is arguably in using a rigid theory but the results showing insignificant.However, the authors admit them as one of the limitations of this study.There are always possibilities to be suspected contributing to the findings: the quality of the instrument and the respondents selected.All the indicators used are adapted from prior studies which are in English.The authors translated and adapted them.In addition, respondents were chosen conveniently in classes.There might be a situation that they were inconvenient to fill out the instrument.
Based on the research findings, the authors recommend to other researchers who intend to select Shapero's model for predicting entrepreneurial intention, may add other variables, such as entrepreneurial school ecosystems, students' personality traits, motivation, school's business incubator and teachers' entrepreneurial oriented leadership.It is also suggested that the future research should pay attention to the heterogeneity of research objects and respondents.
Regarding the role of entrepreneurial education, the government needs to review the curriculum of entrepreneurship education.The schools' stakeholder needs to create the completeness of entrepreneurial learning infrastructure facilities to increase the atmosphere of entrepreneurship spirit.Teachers who teach entrepreneurship subjects should be equipped with knowledge, experience, and practical skills on how to start a business.In the disruption era, teachers should utilize information and technology to facilitate students in learning to become entrepreneurs.
Krueger, et al. (2000) conducted a study by comparing the Shapero's theory of entrepreneurial event and Azjen's theory of planned behavior.Their study concluded that both models had the ability to predict the entrepreneurial intention.The theory of entrepreneurial events resulted in a stronger relationship in terms of entrepreneurial intention.Krueger's research also concluded that the two research models are interrelated when applied to research on entrepreneurship.The Shapero's model is being used as a reference for other researchers for different samples and research sites.Some scholars test the model in various settings and results, such asWeerakoon and Gunatissa (2014) examine entrepreneurial intention of undergraduate students in Sri Lanka.AlHaj, Yusof, and Edama (2011) investigate the intention of community college members in Malaysia.Ngugi, Gakure, Waithaka, and Kiwara (2012)investigate university students' entrepreneurial intention in Kenya.Other scholars research various context and sites Shapero's model to predict students' entrepreneurial intention.Therefore using the Shapero's model in this study will enrich the research repertoire in entrepreneurship.Based on the literature review conducted, the authors develop a research model underlay this research as presented in the following figure.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1. the Research Model

Figure 3
Figure 3 presents the structural model of the Garut study.The model achieved a fitness with probability, CMIN/DF, CFI, and RMSEA scores of 0.120, 1.170, 0.967, and 0.029 respectively.Continuing the confirmatory factor analysis, the authors tested six hypotheses developed by verifying the C.R. and probability values.Table5indicates the results of hypotheses testing of the two cases.The results can be grouped into two categories.The first category describes that three hypotheses (H1, H2, and H3) were accepted (CR > 2.0).Thus, this study revealed that entrepreneurial education had a significant impact on students' perceived desirability, perceived feasibility and perceived propensity to act.It implies that the more students equipped with entrepreneurship subjects, the higher their perceived desirability, perceived feasibility and perceived propensity to act.The second category shows that three hypotheses were rejected (H4, H5, and H6).The rejections were due to the insignificance

Table 1 .
Gender of Participants

Table 2 .
The Business Owned by Parents

Table 3 .
Respondents' Intention in Continuing Their Parents' Business

Table 5 .
Summary of Hypotheses Testing