Job Embeddedness: a Strategy to Reduce Voluntary Turnover Intention

This study examines the relationship between Job Embeddedness and Job Insecurity to voluntary turnover intention and job performance. The sample of this study were 209 respondents from permanent or contract employees who worked as secretaries, clerical or administrative personnel in government or private offices in Central Java, Indonesia. This study used Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) for hypothesis testing. Result of this job insecurity cannot be used to predict voluntary turnover intention or job performance. Job embeddedness is divided into three types, namely job embeddedness link, job embeddedness fit, and job embeddedness sacrifice. Job Embeddedness link and Job Embeddedness fit have no effect on voluntary turnover intention, but they can be used to predict job performance. In contrast, Job embeddedness sacrifice has an effect on voluntary turnover intention but cannot be used to predict job performance. Voluntary turnover intention proved able to be used to predict job performance. Info Article History Article: Submitted 7 January 2020 Revised 14 July 2020 Accepted 15 July 2020


INTRODUCTION
The voluntary turnover intention in a company receives special attention for practitioners and academics because it will have an impact on job performance. Likewise, job performance is essential for the company because it will have an impact on the survival of the company. Therefore, the company uses various ways to improve it. There are many factors can be used to enhance job performance, such as reducing employee insecurity (Chirumbolo & Areni, 2005;Staufenbiel & König, 2010) and increasing employee attachment to the company or Job embeddedness (Lee et al., 2004;Halbesleben & Wheeler, 2008;Sekiguchi et al., 2008;Karatepe & Ngeche, 2012) Job embeddedness is an employee's attachment, a sense of inherent, has a network and becomes an employee factor to survive in the company . There are three dimensions of job embeddedness, namely links, fit and sacrifice Holtom & Inderrieden, 2006;Sekiguchi et al., 2008) found that Job embeddedness has important implications for employee performance. Meanwhile, Karatepe and Ngeche (2012) suggested that job embeddedness positively affects job performance. Furthermore, Lee et al. (2004) concluded that on-the-job embeddedness significantly predicts job performance, while off the job embeddedness does not. Another researcher (Halbesleben & Wheeler, 2008;Karatepe & Ngeche, 2012) suggests that job embeddedness has a positive relationship with Job Performance. Job embeddedness can have a major impact on job performance improvements. Then, it also needs to be wary about factor of job embeddedness which does not impact on job performance.
Low job embeddedness can have implications for voluntary turnover intention. An employee who has low attachment with the organization, they will often think to leave the organization and having the intention to move from their jobs. This will impact on job performance because employees often skip work, often come late, and have no concentration in work, etc. Those factors will not provide a good performance. Therefore, voluntary turnover intention must be suppressed by increasing Job embeddedness so that job performance will increase. Job Embeddedness improvement will be able to improve job performance especially if the voluntary turnover intention is also reduced. It is expected that by increasing Job Embeddedness and reduced voluntary turnover intention will be able to improve job performance so that the company will be more survive. Job embeddedness is a strong predictor of turnover intentions rather than job performance (Halbesleben & Wheeler, 2008). By developing the results of the research above, this study will be tested whether voluntary turnover intention can be a mediating variable between job embeddedness and job performance. Job embeddedness in this research is distinguished on job embeddedness link, fit and sacrifice. In addition to job embeddedness, this study will also examine the effect of job insecurity on job performance by being mediated by voluntary turnover intention.
The results of this study are expected to solve the problem of how to increase job performance. The improvement of job performance so far has been done through job embeddedness, but the results have not been as expected.
The novelty of this study is how to increase job performance through reducing voluntary turnover intention. While reducing voluntary turnover intention is done through increased job embeddedness links, job embeddedness fit, and job embeddedness sacrifice. This is then expected to resolve the high voluntary turnover intention and increase job performance.

Hypothesis Development Job Performance
Performance is defined as behaviors or actions that are relevant to the achievement of organizational goals (Mccloy et al., 1994). Performance is not the result of behavior but it is an action.
There are three dimensions commonly used to explain job performance, namely core technical expertise, work dedication, and interpersonal facilities (Chan & Schmitt, 2002). Core technical skills (task performance) are assessed using three items including task performance for problem analysis, written communication, and oral communication, work dedication is measured by the motivation to carry out tasks, motivation to learn, and motivation to work hard. Whereas the provision of interpersonal facilitation is measured by the ability to make interpersonal conflict resolution, negotiation, and group cooperation.
Meanwhile, Alessandri et al. (2018) assess job performance based on an assessment of customer focus, communication, network management, troubleshoot and change management.

Relationship between Voluntary Turnover Intention and Job Performance
Turnover intention is defined as the employee's desire to leave the organization (Chang et al., 2013). Voluntary turnover intention is the desire or the tendency of employees to stop working or resign from work because of their desires.
Voluntary turnover intention is an undesirable condition for any organization. The high cost that must be borne by the organization is a reason besides the emergence of bad work culture in the organization. Furthermore, voluntary turnover will increase workloads and reduce work productivity. Research shows that this turnover intention can cause actual turnover (Bothma & Roodt, 2012). Thus, organizations must anticipate the emergence of turnover intention to prevent the emergence of monetary costs and psychological costs due to actual turnover.
Many researchers examined the association of a variable with turnover, such as the effect of job satisfaction on voluntary turnover (Mobley et al., 1978;Gerhart, 1990;Hom & Griffeth, 1991). Based on the study above, voluntary turnover becomes a consequent variable. In contrast to the many researches that has been done, in this study, voluntary turnover act as a mediating variable with the consequent variables of job performance.
It is very interesting to examine voluntary turnover intention because it can have a big impact on decreasing job performance. Also, it needs to know the factors that influence voluntary turnover intention so that it can be reduced in such a way. Attitudes that arise when employees are indicated to do voluntary turnover intentions are that employees often think of leaving the organization, think of looking for new jobs for the next year and also think that if they have options, they will choose to work in another organization (Chang et al., 2013).
By looking at these types of voluntary turnover intention indication, the employee's intention to move the organization will greatly affect the organization, especially if those who will resign are the expert staff, it will risk the transferring knowledge about the company to competing companies. Employees' desire to look for other jobs and leave the organization make them often not coming to work, often coming late, not concentrating on work, etc. Then, it will result bad employees' performance.
A turnover intention with an indication of employees thinking of leaving the organization, searching for alternative employment, and their desire to resign (Mobley et al., 1978). Meanwhile, Staufenbiel and König (2010) measured the turnover intention with two items of frequency and intensity of intent, with indications of employees who often think to quit this job and considering seriously for leaving the company.
Other researchers (Hom & Griffeth, 1991) suggested the existence of voluntary turnover by using the characteristics of employees thinking for leaving the organization, employees looking for work in other organizations, desiring to leave the organization in the future, and desiring to leave the organization if there is a better opportunity.
The study conducted by Hui et al. (2007) on turnover intention and job performance concluded that turnover intention negatively affects Job performance. It means, if employees have a high intensity to find a job, it can indicate the decrease in job performance. Furthermore, Dordunu et al. (2020) concluded that there is an inverse relationship between turnover intentions and job performance. Based on this statement, the hypothesis is proposed: H1: Voluntary turnover intention negatively affects job performance

Relationship between Job Insecurity and Job Performance
Job insecurity defines as a psychological condition for employees who show confusion or insecurity due to changing environmental conditions (Smithson & Lewis, 2000). This condition arises because employees have jobs that are not permanent or only temporary. Employees will feel safe if they have jobs that are permanent or not temporary in the company and have a long work time duration.
The study conducted by Staufenbiel and König (2010) on job insecurity, performance, and turnover intention concluded that job insecurity has no significant effect on self-performance, but job insecurity has a positive and significant effect on performance supervisor. Staufenbiel and König (2010) also found a negative and significant influence between job insecurity and turnover intention. It means, if all items used to measure the job insecurity are increased, the worker's intensity to resign will decrease.
Akgunduz and Eryilmaz (2018) conducted a study on job insecurity and turnover intention. In this research, there are two jobs of insecurity. They are cognitive job insecurity and effective job insecurity. The results show that turnover intention has a negative correlation with cognitive job insecurity but it has a positive relationship with affective Job Insecurity.
Another researcher (Chirumbolo & Areni, 2005) suggested that job insecurity negatively and significantly affects job performance. Job insecurity in the study was measured by using five items that focused on workers' perceptions and concerns about whether they would be able to maintain their current jobs. Based on the explanation above, the following hypothesis are proposed: H2: There is a negative relationship between job insecurity and job performance H3: There is a positive relationship between job insecurity and voluntary turnover intention

Relationship between Job Embeddedness and Voluntary Turnover Intensity
Job embeddedness is someone's attachment to the organization. Job embeddedness as the employee's attachment to the company, the sense of being firmly attached to the company, having a network within the company and being the employee factor to survive in the company . The more attached an employee is, the more difficult it is to leave the organization.
There are three main factors contributing to job embeddedness: (1) how far a person has a strong attachment to people or groups at work and in their community; (2) how far a person feels compatible with their work and community; and (3) how far a person must give up or sacrifice something if they leave their job . Job embeddedness is one of the strategies that has been proven to be able to influence voluntary turnover. Dechawatanapaisal (2018) states that there is a negative relationship between job embeddedness and turnover intention.
In line with the results above, the study conducted by  who had analyzed the relationship between job embeddedness and voluntary turnover. The result can be concluded that there is a negative correlation between job embeddedness and voluntary turnover. This is consistent with the study stated that there was a negative and significant relationship between job embeddedness and voluntary turnover (Afsar et al., 2018;Dechawatanapaisal, 2018;Coetzer et al., 2019). Karatepe and Ngeche (2012) studied about job embeddedness, turnover intention and job performance. The results showed that job embeddedness had a negative effect on turnover intention. In that study, the researcher studied turnover intention, whereas in this research, the writers examine voluntary turnover intention. The difference is that turnover intention can include involuntary and voluntary turnover, while in the research that the author does is devoted to voluntary turnover.
In contrast, Lee et al. (2004) examine job embeddedness which is separated in two main dimensions, namely on the job embeddedness (that is, organizational fit, links, and sacrifice) and off the job embeddedness (that is, community fit, links, and sacrifice). The results of the study revealed that off the job embeddedness significantly predicts voluntary turnover, while on the job embeddedness does not.
To measure a person's engagement is to his organization,  uses three indicators. First is fit, this concerns the suitability of an employee with the organization and its environment. Peltokorpi (2013) distinguishes the dimension of fit in job embeddedness into two; on the job embeddedness (personal values, career goals, plans, job knowledge, skills, and abilities) and off the job embeddedness (weather, amenities activities, general culture, outdoor activities e.g.: religious climate and entertainment). Therefore, the more a person is fit to his current job, both the similarities with personal values, match the knowledge and skills he has and the more comfortable with the existing religious atmosphere and the pleasant outdoor activities, the more attached he is to the organization. Someone who is attached to his job or fit with his work, who has a good relationship and love with people in the organization, and feels very disadvantaged if leaving the organization, he will feel as like he has an organization and wants to sacrifice for the organization by helping co-workers in completing their work (Cho & Ryu, 2009) Second is link, this concerns how much and how closely formal and informal relations of an employee with subordinates or peers. Peltokorpi (2013) distinguishes the dimensions of link in job embeddedness into on the job embeddedness (work friends, workgroups, team members, community, etc.) and off the job embeddedness (non-work friends, physical environment, children's education, and friends, hobbies, etc.). Thus, the more coworkers, the better the relationship between them. The longer someone is becoming a part of the community, the more attached he is to the organization. This attachment will be stronger if the person already has a family and has children who need adequate education.
Third is Sacrifice, this is about how much an employee sacrifices if he has to leave the organization. Peltokorpi (2013) distinguishes the dimensions of sacrifice in job embeddedness into on the job embeddedness (job security, seniority, pension) and off the job embeddedness (job security, status, social network). This means, the more senior someone is, the greater the pension fund and job security provided by the organization and the more attached he is to the organization. This attachment will be stronger if they are afraid of losing their status and social networking. Felps et al. (2009) examined individual job embeddedness, co-workers' job search behavior, and individual voluntary turnover. Individual voluntary turnover is measured by employees' willingness to voluntarily leave work within the next 18 months. The results showed that there was a negative and significant relationship between job embeddedness and individual voluntary turnover. Individual job Embeddedness is indicated by organization links, community links, organization fit, community fit, organization sacrifice, and community sacrifice. If the sixth of job embeddedness increases, voluntary turnover will decrease.  use six dimensions of job embeddedness as well as Felps et al. (2009). Each dimension of job embeddedness is significantly related to voluntary turnover. If employees feel more attached to a company, the desire to move from job will decrease. This is because embedded employees will perceive themselves as an unpredictable part of their organization.
Referring to the results of the study above, the following hypotheses are proposed: H4a: There is a negative relationship between job embeddedness links and voluntary turnover intention H4b: There is a negative relationship between 276 job embeddedness fit and voluntary turnover intention H4c: There is a negative relationship between job embeddedness sacrifice and voluntary turnover intention

Relationship between Job Embeddedness and job performance
The investigation of Sekiguchi et al., (2008) found that Job embeddedness has important implications for employee performance. Karatepe and Ngeche (2012) explored job embeddedness, turnover intention and job performance. The results showed that job embeddedness positively affected job performance. Lee et al. (2004) examine the job embeddedness separated into two major dim ensions, namely on the job embeddedness and off the job embeddedness. The results revealed that on-the-job embeddedness significantly predicted job performance, while off the job embeddedness was not.
In line with the previous research (Halbesleben & Wheeler, 2008; Karatepe & Ngeche, 2012) suggest that job embeddedness has a positive correlation with job performance. Job performance Halbesleben and Wheeler (2008) is differentiated in self-rated performance, supervisor-rated performance, co-worker-rated performance. This is in line with the previous study (Tian et al., 2016) that job embeddedness dimensions (fit, sacrifice, and links) significantly influence job performance. Referring to the results of the study above, the following hypotheses are proposed: H5a: There is a positive relationship between job embeddedness links and job performance H5b: There is a positive relationship between job embeddedness fit and job performance H5c: There is a positive relationship between job embeddedness concentration and job performance

Population and Sample
The population of this study is permanent and contracted employees who work as secreta-ries, clerical or administrative personnel in government or private offices located in Indonesia. Data is obtained by distributing questionnaires to 250 employees selected purposively. From 250 questionnaires circulated, 239 questionnaires were returned (95.6% response rate). After an outlier test, a decent questionnaire was used as many as 209 questionnaires.
From 209 questionnaires, male respondents were 44%, women are 56%. The educational level of respondents such Bachelor degree are 20.6%, Diploma are 13%, SMA are 65.3% and others are 1.1%. Employees' status is 47.4% of permanent employees, while 43.6% are contract employees.

Measurement
All measurements come from the "selfreport" questionnaire. The questionnaire was prepared by using a five-point Likert scale, with a score of 1 to show disagree and a score of 5 to indicate strongly agree on the statement submitted.
Job Embeddedness is divided into job embeddedness link, fit, and sacrifice. Job embeddedness link has four indicators. The four indicators that meet the loading factor are three indicators (Allen, 2006), including: 1) The organization provides the opportunity to participate in all jobs, 2) have long interacted with colleagues at work, 3) close friendship with colleagues.
Job embeddedness fit has four indicators (Allen, 2006). The four indicators that fulfill the loading factor are three indicators, including: 1) having friendly and affection relationships with all members of the organization, 2) feeling attached to this organization, 3) not being able to leave the organization where the employees work.
Job embeddedness sacrifice has four indicators (Allen, 2006), The four indicators that meet the loading factor are three questions item, including: 1) It will require a great sacrifice for me if I leave the organization, 2) Promotional opportunities in this organization are very good, 3) It will difficult for me to leave the community where I work.
Job insecurity is measured by five question items (Chirumbolo & Areni, 2005;Staufenbiel & König, 2010). There are three from five items that meet the loading factor including: 1) The possibility of losing my job makes me very depressed, 2) I am worried about the unclear status of my work in this organization, 3) I am worried about my career uncertainty in this organization.
Job performance is measured by six questions (Karatepe & Ngeche, 2012), there are three item which fulfills the loading factor, including: 1) I am always able to complete a given task well, 2) I always achieve the target work quality set, 3) I can carry out the work on time.
Voluntary turnover intention is measured by five question items (Mobley et al., 1978;Chang et al., 2013). There are three of five items that meet the loading factor, including: 1) I am interested in leaving the organization, 2) I am interested in moving to another organization and 3) I want to quit this organization.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
This research used structural equation model by using Maximum Likelihood (ML) approach. To analyze the data, we used the AMOS program version 24. There are six construct variables with 18 indicators that have met the loading factor. From the test model between the construct and the indicators contained within, the value χ2 = 255.290, df = 120, GFI = 0.881, AGFI = 0.830, TLI = 0.875, CFI = 0.902, RM-SEA = 0.074. Table 1 shows the statistical descriptive and correlation among variables. From these correlations, it can be known that job performance and job embeddedness is not correlated with job insecurity but correlates with all variables other than Job Insecurity. Voluntary turnover is not correlated with job insecurity and job embeddedness fit. Voluntary turnover Intention correlates with job performance, job embeddedness link, and job embeddedness sacrifice. Table 2 shows the results of the direct effects of Voluntary Turnover Intention (VIT) on  Job performance ( JP), Job Insecurity ( JI) on JP, Job Embeddedness links ( JEL), Job Embeddedness fit ( JIF) and Job Embeddedness sacrifice ( JIS) on Voluntary Turnover Intention (VIT), and the direct effects of JEL, JIF, and JIS on job performance ( JP). While the relationship between variables and the indicators can be found in the full model in Figure 1.
The hypothesis in this study predicts that there is a negative relationship between job insecurity and job performance. The result of regression analysis shows the values of β = -0, 047 and p > 0.05. It means, there is a negative relationship between job insecurity with job performance but it is not significant. In conclusion, hypothesis 2 proposed in this study is rejected.
The hypothesis in this study predicts there is a positive relationship between job insecurity and voluntary turnover intention. The result of regression analysis shows the value of β = 0.035, p > 0.05. As the relationship between job insecurity and job performance, eventually, job insecurity is not able to predict voluntary turnover intention, so the hypothesis 3 proposed in this research is also rejected.
The hypothesis proposed in this study predicts that increased Job Embeddedness will be able to decrease voluntary turnover intention. Job embeddedness in this study is distinguished on job embeddedness links, job embeddedness fit and job embeddedness sacrifice. The result of the regression analysis between job embeddedness links to voluntary turnover intention shows the value of β = 0.091 and p > 0.05. The result of regression analysis between job embeddedness fit to voluntary turnover intensity shows the value of β = 0.177 and p > 0.05. While the result of regression analysis between job embeddedness sacrifice to voluntary turnover intensity show value β = -0, 652 and p < 0.05. The result of this regression analysis can be interpreted that the increase of job embeddedness links and job embeddedness fit is not proven able to decrease voluntary turnover intention, but job embeddedness sacrifice proved able to decrease voluntary turnover intention. Thus, hypothesis 4a and 4b are not supported, whereas hypothesis 4c is supported. The hypothesis in this study also predicts that Job Embeddedness improvement will affect Job Performance improvement.

Figure 1. Full Model
The result of the regression analysis between job embeddedness links to job performance shows the value of β = 0.514 and p < 0.10. The result of regression analysis between job embeddedness fit to job performance shows the value of β = 0.482 and p > 0.05. While the result of regression analysis between job embeddedness sacrifices to job performance show value β = -0.047 and p > 0.05. These results indicate that an increase in job embeddedness link and job embeddedness fit will improve job performance, but an increase in job embeddedness sacrifice is not supported to improve job performance. Hence, hypothesis 5a and 5b are supported, but hypothesis 5c is rejected.
The hypothesis proposed in this study predicts that a decrease in voluntary turnover intention will have an impact on increasing job performance. Regression analysis between voluntary turnover intention to job performance produces a value of β = -0.303 and p < 0.05. This result can be concluded that a decrease in voluntary turnover intention can improve job performance. Thus, the hypothesis 1 proposed in this study can be supported.
In general, job embeddedness will positively affect job performance. Job embeddedness fit in this study proved to have no effect on voluntary turnover but have a positive and significant effect on job performance. Three items used to measure job embeddedness fit are employees who have friendship and affection relationships with all members of the organization, employees feel bound to the organization, and employees cannot leave the organization where they work. The condition of employees in these three items cannot be used to predict voluntary turnover intention. This is not in accordance with the research conducted by Felps et al. (2009), which states that job embeddedness will negatively affect voluntary turn over.
Three items of job embeddedness fit can be used to predict job performance. Employees who have friendly and affection relationships with all members of the organization will work so earnestly that they perform well. Similarly, employees who feel bound to the organization and cannot leave the organization will have an impact on good performance.
In this research, job embeddedness link did not affect the voluntary turnover intention but positively and significantly influence job performance. Job embeddedness link is a formal or informal connection between a person with an institution and another person. Job embeddedness link has some indicators, such as an organization provides the opportunity to participate in all work, employees have long interacted with colleagues at work, and employees are close friends with colleagues. If the Job embeddedness link with these indicators increases, it will increase job performance, even it will not have an impact on voluntary turnover intention. This contrasts with research conducted by Felps et al. (2009), that job embeddedness will negatively affect voluntary turnover.
Job embeddedness sacrifice turned out not to be used to predict job performance, but job embeddedness sacrifice proved to have a negative and significant impact on voluntary turnover intention. Employees feel they will need a great sacrifice if they leave the organization. This condition has an impact on the decrease in voluntary turnover intention but has no impact on job performance. Great promotion opportunities within the organization and the feeling of having difficulty leaving the workplace community also affect in reducing voluntary turnover intention but does not affect job performance.
The results showed that there was no effect of increasing job insecurity on increasing voluntary turn over intention or decreasing job performance. The depressed feeling of employees because of the possibility of loss job cannot be used to predict voluntary turnover intention or job performance. Similarly, employee concerns due to unclear employment status and employee concerns due to vagueness career cannot be used to predict voluntary turnover intention or job performance. Items which is used to measure job insecurity are not able to predict voluntary turnover intention or employee performance. This result is not in accordance with previous research (Chirumbolo & Areni, 2005;Staufenbiel & König, 2010) who concluded that job insecurity negatively and significantly affects job performance.
Job embeddedness sacrifice proved to have a negative and significant impact on voluntary turnover intention. While the voluntary turnover intention is proven to be able to predict Job performance. It can be interpreted that voluntary turnover intention can be a variable that mediates the relationship between job embeddedness sacrifice and Job performance. Improved job embeddedness sacrifice can be a strategy to decrease Voluntary turn over intention. While the decrease of voluntary turnover intention proved able to improve job performance

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
We believe that this research can contribute to how to decrease voluntary turnover intention, by increasing job embeddedness sacrifice. The turnover intention in this study is devoted to voluntary turnover. This is different with Karatepe and Ngeche (2012) that uses turnover intention as combined from involuntary and voluntary turnover. In this research, the decrease of Voluntary Turnover Intention is done through job embeddedness sacrifice. This is different from Karatepe and Ngeche (2012) who suggested that a decrease in Intention turn over can be done through job embeddedness, without looking at the job embeddedness sacrifice, fit or link.
Another contribution of this research is that to increase job performance can be done by reducing the voluntary turnover intention. In addition, increased job performance can also be done by increasing job embeddedness fit and link.
This study used Voluntary turnover intention to mediate the relationship of job embeddedness and performance. Some of the interesting things for future research, are first, we recommend voluntary turnover intention separated between involuntary and voluntary turnover. This separation will be able to clarify how each impact on job performance. Second, the sample in this study is not distinguished how the status of employees who are made as respondents, whether permanent or contract employees. It is suggested for future studies to differentiate employee status because it will affect the voluntary turnover intention. Third, in addition to differentiated employee status, it is recommended in future research also differentiated how the level of employees in the company, whether top, middle or lower employee. These differences will have an impact on job embeddedness, job insecurity, voluntary turn over intention, and job performance.
We develop and test the relationship of job embeddedness with voluntary turnover intention and job performance. The results may contribute to developing speculation that job embeddedness sacrifice increases the voluntary turnover intention. The results also show that the effect of decreasing voluntary turnover intention is the increase of job performance. Increased job performance in addition to reducing the voluntary turnover intention, it can also be done by improving Job embeddedness fit and job embeddedness link.
This study still has some limitations, such as the use of questionnaire instruments to explore data from respondents. Questions proposed to respondents are very likely to occur selfresponse bias so that it affects the conclusion. Therefore, the consistency of the results can be re-tested on several different objects.
In future studies, expanding the dimensions of job performance is strongly recommended, for example by adding job performance from a religious perspective.