Transgender Persons and Structural Barriers in Criminal Justice: A Comparative Study of India and Indonesia
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15294/ulj.v12i1.49589Keywords:
criminal justice system , gender-neutral, structural barriers, transgender, wariaAbstract
This article critically examines the structural and legal barriers faced by transgender (TG) persons within the criminal justice systems (CJS) of India and Indonesia. It systematically inquires into the gaps in substantive criminal laws, procedural safeguards, policing practices, trial process, and prison administration that exclude TG persons in India and Indonesia from access to justice. It focuses on three offence clusters: sexual violence, police violence/custodial abuse, and criminalisation through public order/morality laws. The paper argues that CJS of both the jurisdictions fail to protect TG persons not only because of social stigma or lack of recognition, but because the substantive criminal laws and procedural safeguards are designed around gender-binary notion and are implemented through hostile law-enforcement institutions. This research employs a doctrinal and comparative legal methodology to analyse the treatment of TG persons across three stages of the CJS: pre-trial reporting and investigation, trial, and post-trial prison administration. It contrasts India’s recognition framework- grounded in the landmark NALSA judgement and the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2019-alongside its criminal law scheme under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, and the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 with Indonesia’s constitutional guarantees, recent KUHP reforms, Law No. 12 of 2022 on Sexual Violence Crimes, and morality-based regional enforcement. The research concludes that India and Indonesia differ in formal recognition but converge in structural obstacles such as gender-binary penal laws, police violence, and data invisibility. It recommends for substantive legislative reform, stronger implementation mechanisms, and greater institutional accountability to secure meaningful criminal justice protection for TG persons in both the jurisdictions.
References
Adiguna, Surya, and Shella Putri Bagaskara “Gender Minority Rights and Legal Protection of the LGBTQ+ Community in Indonesia: Challenges and Opportunities”. Indonesian Minority Justice Review 2, no. 4 (2025). https://doi.org/10.65815/be761y05
Amnesty International. “Indonesia: Crackdowns on LGBTI People Hit Alarming Level.” November 2018.
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/11/indonesia-crackdowns-lgbti-people-hit-alarming-level/.
Anamika v. Union of India WP (Crl.) No. 2537 of 2018.
ASEAN SOGIE Caucus News. “Joint Statement of Regional Organizations on Increasing Violence against LGBTIQ Persons in Indonesia.” ASEAN SOGIE Caucus News. Accessed January 23, 2026. https://aseansogiecaucus.org/latest/asc-news/115-joint-statement-of-regional-organizations-on-increasing-violence-against-lgbtiq-persons-in-indonesia.
Asmarani, Devi, and Magdalene. “No Country for LGBT: Moral Panic and Persecution of Sexual Minority in Indonesia.” Magdalene. Accessed January 25, 2026.
Australian Human Rights Institute. “Epidemic of Violence against Transgender Women in Indonesia: When the Government Fails to Protect Its Vulnerable Citizens.” Accessed January 17, 2026.
Ayuni, Qurrata. “Judicial Review of Criminal Code Articles on Adultery, Rape, and Same-Sex Obscene in the Indonesian Constitutional Court.” Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research 162 (2017): 169. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323181105_Judicial_Review_of_Criminal_Code_Articles_on_Adultery_Rape_and_Same-Sex_Obscene_in_Indonesia_Constitutional_Court/fulltext/5a84df2ba6fdcc201b9efe7f/Judicial-Review-of-Criminal-Code-Articles-on-Adultery-Rape-and-Same-Sex-Obscene-in-Indonesia-Constitutional-Court.pdf.
Badgett, M. V. Lee, Amira Hasenbush and Winston Ekaprasetia Luhur. LGBT Exclusion in Indonesia and Its Economic Effects. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law, 2017. Accessed February 2, 2026.
https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/LGBT-Exclusion-Indonesia-Apr-2017.pdf.
Bansal, Vandana. “Why Only 236 Trans Person Victims of Crimes Were Recorded in India in 2020.” IndiaSpend, June 23, 2022. https://www.indiaspend.com/gendercheck/why-only-236-trans-person-victims-of-crimes-were-recorded-in-india-in-2020-823034.
Barrett, Lachlan, Jirawat Nopchai, and Adira Kartika “Justice for All? An Empirical Study on Discrimination in Criminal Court Rulings”. Indonesian Court and Justice Review 1, no. 1 (2024). https://doi.org/10.65815/ctyh9808
Bhattacharya, Shamayeta, Debarchana Ghosh, and Bandana Purkayastha. “‘Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act’ of India: An Analysis of Substantive Access to Rights of a Transgender Community.” Journal of Human Rights Practice 14, no. 2 (2022): 676–697. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhuman/huac004.
Buchanan, Kelly. “Indonesia: New Criminal Code Passed by Parliament.” Global Legal Monitor, Library of Congress, December 11, 2022. https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2022-12-11/indonesia-new-criminal-code-passed-by-parliament/
Busro, Achmad. “Court Decision on the Change of Legal Status after Transsexual Surgery (An Analysis on Batang District Court No. 19/Pdt/P/2009/PN.Btg).” South East Asia Journal of Contemporary Business, Economics and Law 4, no. 3 (2014). Accessed January 18, 2026.
Census of India. “Population Census: Transgender Population.” Accessed February 3, 2026.
http://census2011.co.in/transgender.php.
Chakrapani, Venkatesan, P. V. M. Lakshmi, Paul A. Newman, et al. “Syndemic Violence Victimization, Alcohol and Drug Use, and HIV Transmission Risk Behavior among HIV-Negative Transgender Women in India: A Cross-Sectional, Population-Based Study.” PLOS Global Public Health 2, no. 10 (2022): e0000437. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0000437.
Chauhan, Neeraj. “Left Alone: Just 2% of Trans People Stay with Parents.” The Times of India, August 13, 2018. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/left-alone-just-2-of-trans-people-stay-with-parents/articleshow/65380226.cms.
Citizens for Justice and Peace. “Mapping Gender-Based Violence in India: Trends, Determinants, and Institutional Frameworks.” August 28, 2025.
Constitution of India.
Constitutional Court of the Republic of Indonesia. “Indonesian Constitution Protects Human Rights of Everyone Including Foreign Nationals.” January 16, 2023. Accessed January 28, 2026.
Criminalisation of LGBT People in Indonesia. London: Human Dignity Trust, December 16, 2024.
https://www.humandignitytrust.org/country-profile/indonesia/.
Deccan Herald. “Cops Prohibit Transgender Individuals from Demanding Money at Pune Traffic Junctions,” Deccan Herald (PTI), April 10, 2024. https://www.deccanherald.com/india/maharashtra/cops-prohibit-transgender-individuals-from-demanding-money-at-pune-traffic-junctions-2973106.
Economic and Political Weekly. “Where the Transgender Bill Fails.” Economic and Political Weekly 53, no. 35, September 1, 2018. https://www.epw.in/journal/2018/35/editorials/where-transgender-bill-fails.html.
Ezzerouali, Souad, Mashaallah Alzwae, Muwaffiq Jufri, and Abdelrazek Wahba Sayed. “Legal Protection for Children Without Family Care: A Comparative Study of Oman, UAE, and Morocco”. Justicia Islamica 22, no. 1 (2025): 93-114. https://doi.org/10.21154/justicia.v22i1.10750
Harsono, Andreas. “Indonesian Police Arrest Transgender Women.” Human Rights Watch. January 30, 2018. Accessed January 21, 2026.
https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/01/30/indonesian-police-arrest-transgender-women.
Human Rights Watch, “Dispatches: Challenging Indonesia’s Intolerant Muslim Clerics”, Human Rights Watch, March 17, 2015, https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/03/17/dispatches-challenging-indonesias-intolerant-muslim-clerics.
Human Rights Watch, “Indonesia: New Criminal Code Disastrous for Rights”, Human Rights Watch, December 8, 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/12/08/indonesia-new-criminal-code-disastrous-rights.
Human Rights Watch. “Indonesia: Aceh’s New Islamic Laws Violate Rights.” October 2, 2014.
https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/10/02/indonesia-acehs-new-islamic-laws-violate-rights.
Human Rights Watch. “Indonesia: Investigate Police Raid on ‘Gay Party.’” September 7, 2020. Accessed January 20, 2026.
https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/09/07/indonesia-investigate-police-raid-gay-party.
Human Rights Watch. “Indonesian Police Harass Transgender Women.” Human Rights Watch. November 8, 2018. Accessed January 21, 2026.
https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/11/08/indonesian-police-harass-transgender-women.
Human Rights Watch. Scared in Public and Now No Privacy: Human Rights and Public Health Impacts of Indonesia’s Anti-LGBT Laws. July 2018. Accessed January 19, 2026.
Ingvar Kjaran, Jon, and Mohammad Naeimi. “Transpuan Communities in Indonesia.” Anthropology of the Middle East 20, no. 1 (2025): 59–74.
https://doi.org/10.3167/ame.2025.200104.
International Labour Office. A Study on Discrimination at Work on the Basis of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in Indonesia. Accessed February 1, 2026.
https://www.ilo.org/media/433176/download.
Jayalakshmi v. State of Tamil Nadu. (2007) 4 MLJ 849.
Kapil and Md. Iftekhar Khan. “Sexual Assault Against Transgender: The Definitional Void And The Absurdity Of Indian Penal Provisions”. LiveLaw, March 1, 2025. https://www.livelaw.in/lawschool/articles/sexual-assault-against-transgenders-and-indian-criminal-laws-285326.
Karan Tripathi v. National Crime Records Bureau W.P. (C) No. 9596 of 2020.
Kerala Development Society. Study on Human Rights of Transgender as a Third Gender. New Delhi: National Human Rights Commission, 2017. https://nhrc.nic.in/assets/uploads/training_projects/Study_HR_transgender_03082018.pdf.
Knight, Kyle. “Vigilantes Stalk Indonesian Transgender Women.” Human Rights Watch. December 19, 2017. Accessed January 20, 2026.
https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/12/19/vigilantes-stalk-indonesian-transgender-women.
Kumar, Ankush. “Anti-Transgender Discrimination, Violence in India Persists.” Washington Blade, September 24, 2024. https://www.washingtonblade.com/2024/09/24/anti-transgender-discrimination-violence-in-india-persists/.
Laporan Penelitian Survei Kualitas Hidup Waria di Indonesia (2015). Accessed January 24, 2026. https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/45308-ID-survei-kualitas-hidup-waria-di-indonesia.pdf.
Law No. 1 of 2023 on the Criminal Code (Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Pidana), arts. 411, 412, promulgated January 2, 2023, effective January 2, 2026; see “Key Provisions of Indonesia’s New Criminal Code”, SSEK Law Firm, February 15, 2023, https://www.ssek.com/blog/key-provisions-of-indonesias-new-criminal-code/.
Law No. 39 of 1999 Concerning Human Rights (Indonesia).
Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 1 of 2023 on the Criminal Code. Accessed January 11, 2026.
https://the-world-is-watching.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/2023-Indonesia-Penal-Code.pdf.
Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 22 of 2022 on Corrections, replacing Law No. 12 of 1995 on Corrections.
LBH Masyarakat. “Seri Monitor dan Dokumentasi 2018”. Accessed January 13, 2026. https://lbhmasyarakat.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Seri-Monitor-dan-Dokumentasi-Bahaya-Akut-Persekusi-LGBT.pdf
Lestari, Ermina Dwi, Achmad Adi Surya G. S., and Rico Septian Noor. “Sexual Violence Crimes and Legal Protection for Victims: Law Number 12 of 2022 on Sexual Violence Crimes and the Reality of Handling Sexual Violence Cases in Indonesia.” Journal of Law Politics and Humanities 5, no. 6 (2025): 4683–4694. https://dinastires.org/JLPH/article/download/2196/1729/15755.
M. Srinivasan v. State Crl. O.P. (MD) No. 11848 of 2020, Crl. M.P. (MD) Nos. 5454 and 5457 of 2020.
Marpaung, Jessica Vincentia. “Sexual Violence Eradication in Indonesia: The Road Ahead.” Jakarta Globe, February 3, 2022. https://jakartaglobe.id/opinion/sexual-violence-eradication-in-indonesia-the-road-ahead.
Masli, Novrida. “Being LGBT in Indonesia: Why Attacks on the Community Are Growing.” LifeGate. Accessed January 21, 2026. https://www.lifegate.com/lgbt-in-indonesia-attacks-increasing.
Mehta, Avantika. “The Many Rapes of India’s Transgender Citizens.” Outlook India, June 10, 2025. https://www.outlookindia.com/national/the-many-rapes-of-indias-transgender-citizens.
Ministry of Home Affairs, Advisory on Treatment and Care of Transgender Persons in Prisons (New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs, January 10, 2022), accessed on July 21, 2026, https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/CareofTransgendersinPrisons_11012022.pdf
Ministry of Home Affairs, Model Prisons and Correctional Services Act, 2023 (New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs, 2024), accessed on July 21, 2026, https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2024-12/ModelPrisonsCorrectionalServicesAct_20122024.pdf
Ms. X v. State of Uttarakhand (2019) W.P. (Cr) 28 (Utt. HC).
Mugloo, Saqib, and Shefali Rafiq. “They Thought I Was a Curse: The Struggles of India’s Trans Community.” openDemocracy, April 7, 2023. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/india-transgender-discrimination-health-gender-affirmation-surgery/.
Mun’im, Abdul, et al. "Contemporary Law, Justice, and Integrative Jurisprudence: Reconstructing Usul al-Fiqh Towards an Integrated Philosophy of Law." MILRev: Metro Islamic Law Review 5, no. 2 (2026): 1979-2014. https://doi.org/10.32332/milrev.v5i2.13025
National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2020.
National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2022.
National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2023.
National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India (2014) 5 SCC 438.
Ni Wayan Septarini, HuiJun Chih, Jacqueline Hendriks, Bruce Maycock, and Sharyn Burns. “Prevalence of Stigma and Discrimination Amongst Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM) and Transgender Women (Waria) in Bali, Indonesia.” Journal of Homosexuality 71, no. 6 (2024): 1419–1441. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2023.2174470.
Nugroho, Harry, Indah Sri Utari, Irawaty Irawaty, Satrio Sakti Nugroho, Souad Ezzerouali, and Tajudeen Sanni. “Who will advocate? The impact of decision 93/PUU-XX/2022 on article 433 Civil Code amendments for disability rights and legal protection”. Indonesian Journal of Advocacy and Legal Services 7, no. 1 (2025): 95-120. https://doi.org/10.15294/ijals.v7i1.22699
Nugroho, Malik Akbar. “Gender, Justice, and International Law: Rethinking Indonesia’s Commitments to Women’s Rights”. Indonesian Studies in International Law and Justice 2, no. 1 (2025). https://doi.org/10.65815/q3cghw14
P39A Criminal Law Blog. “Criminal Law Bills 2023 Decoded #2: Concerns with the Proposed Landscape of Sexual Offences in BNS 2023.” P39A Criminal Law Blog, September 16, 2023. https://p39ablog.com/2023/09/criminal-law-bills-2023-decoded-2-concerns-with-the-proposed-landscape-of-sexual-offences-in-bns-2023/.
Pal, Sumedha. “Why Lives and Deaths of Trans Persons Remain Underreported, Undocumented.” BehanBox, November 20, 2023. https://behanbox.com/2023/11/20/why-lives-and-deaths-of-trans-persons-remain-underreported-undocumented/.
Parul and Luvleen. “Victimization of Women in Prisons: A Comparative Analysis of India and Indonesia.” Brawijaya Law Journal 7, no. 2 (2020): 280.
Perwitiningsih. “Legal Status of Transgender Individuals after Changing Gender on Identity Cards.” In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Law Reform (INCLAR 2024), 194–197. Paris: Atlantis Press, 2025.
https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/inclar-24/126008735.
Pinki Pramanik v. State of West Bengal CRR No. 2848 of 2013 (Calcutta High Court).
Priya, Lakshmi.“Begging Racket Crackdown’ Sheds Light on Hyd Police’s Ignorance About Trans Persons,” The News Minute, August 27, 2023. https://www.thenewsminute.com/telangana/begging-racket-crackdown-sheds-light-hyd-police-s-ignorance-about-trans-persons-181583.
Rindrasari. “Pekan Kesadaran Transgender di Indonesia: Mengenang Kehilangan, Memperjuangkan Martabat.” Yayasan Keadilan dan Perdamaian Indonesia. Accessed January 24, 2026. https://ykpindonesia.org/id/pekan-kesadaran-transgender-di-indonesia-mengenang-kehilangan-memperjuangkan-martabat/.
Sandeep Nanwani et al., “From Margins to Centre: Who Constructed LGBT Identity in Indonesia?”, New Mandala, November 21, 2016, https://www.newmandala.org/from-margins-to-centre/.
Sekar, Alifia . “Indonesian Police Most Reported for Torture in Law Enforcement: Komnas HAM.” Asia News Network, June 28, 2024. Accessed January 24, 2026.
https://asianews.network/indonesian-police-most-reported-for-torture-in-law-enforcement-komnas-ham/.
Shim, Elizabeth. “Indonesia Police Arrest 141 Men for ‘Gay Sex Party.’” UPI, May 22, 2017. https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2017/05/22/Indonesia-police-arrest-141-men-for-gay-sex-party/4361495477092/.
Sidabutar, Andre. “The Plight of Transgender Indonesians: Legal Challenges and Social Exclusion in the Courts”. Indonesian Minority Justice Review 2, no. 2 (2025). https://doi.org/10.65815/0wa7t966
Singh, Mansi. “Transgender Persons and Public Spaces: Lack of Protection from the Law,” Centre for Law & Policy Research, March 25, 2023. https://clpr.org.in/blog/transgender-persons-and-public-spaces-lack-of-protection-from-the-law/.
Solanki, Ajay Singh. “India’s New Law on the Protection of Rights of Transgender Persons.” International Bar Association. Accessed January 17, 2026. https://www.ibanet.org/article/0f3ae21b-0170-4bf7-95dd-45b07ef1caf6.
Star Observer. “Indonesia Is Rounding Up Trans People and Forcing Them into ‘Rehabilitation’”, Star Observer, March 12, 2018, https://www.starobserver.com.au/news/international-news-news/indonesia-trans-people-forced-rehabilitation/167134.
Sutrisno, Budi.“Placement of Trans Woman in Men’s Prison Inhumane, Unlawful: Activists,” The Jakarta Post, November 24, 2020. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/11/24/placement-of-trans-woman-in-mens-prison-inhumane-unlawful-activists.html.
The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia.
The Indonesian National Commission on Human Rights. “List of Issues Prior to Reporting (LOIPR) on Indonesia’s Anticipated 2nd Periodic Report under the ICESCR.” Accessed January 23, 2026. https://crm-consortium.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Komnas-HAM-RI-Submission-Draft-To-ICESCR_Eng-Vers.pdf.
The Indonesian National Human Rights Commission. “Submission to the United Nations, 3rd Universal Periodic Review, 27th Session of the Working Group on the UPR, Human Rights Council (2016).” Accessed January 23, 2026. https://www.komnasham.go.id/files/20160929-submission-to-the-united-nations-$F7UF4R.pdf.
The Jakarta Post. “North Jakarta Court Jails Men for Two Years over ‘Gay Sex Party.’” The Jakarta Post, December 18, 2017. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/12/18/north-jakarta-court-jails-men-for-two-years-over-gay-sex-party.html.
Tibaka, Leli. “The Protection of Human Rights in Indonesian Constitutional Law after the Amendment of the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia.” Fiat Justisia 11, no. 3 (2017): 266–288. https://jurnal.fh.unila.ac.id/index.php/fiat/article/download/1141/977/3722.
Transgender Europe. Trans Murder Monitoring 2024 Update. TGEU, 2024. Accessed January 27, 2026. https://tgeu.org/files/uploads/2024/11/TGEU-TMM-TDoR2024-Table-2.pdf.
Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 (India).
United States Department of State. 2023 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Indonesia. Washington, DC, 2024. https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/indonesia/.
Utari, Indah Sri, et al. "Rethinking Filicide through Freudian Psychoanalysis: A Comparative Perspective on Indonesian and Spanish Criminal Cases." Jurnal IUS Kajian Hukum dan Keadilan 14, no. 2 (2026): 587-620. https://doi.org/10.29303/ius.v14i2.1997
Wulandari, Cahya, and Winarsih Winarsih “Women’s Rights in Indonesia: Gender-Based Violence and the Challenge of Legal Protection”. Contemporary Issues on Indonesian Human Rights Law and Policy 1, no. 4 (2024). https://doi.org/10.65815/yqe5k217
Zaenuri, Zaenuri, Heri Yanto, Fathur Rokhman, Abdul Rajagukguk, and Souad Ezzerouali. “The Role of Interfaith Law and Policy in Managing Human Resources: Addressing Religious Diversity in the Workplace”. Contemporary Issues on Interfaith Law and Society 4, no. 1 (2025): 1-44. https://doi.org/10.15294/ciils.v4i1.22479
Zayzda, Nurul Azizah. “CILIS Factsheet 2: Human Rights in Indonesian Law.” Centre for Indonesian Law, Islam and Society, The University of Melbourne. https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/4965808/Nurul-42.-CILIS-Factsheet-2.pdf.
Downloads
Published
Article ID
49589Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Niharika Kumar, Rajvendra Singh, Shobhit Pratap Singh, Siddharth Chaurasia, Prashant Singh, Ridwan Arifin, Sergi Fernandez Alejandro (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
All writings published in this journal are the personal views of the authors and do not represent the views of this journal or the authors' affiliated institutions. Author(s) retain copyrights under the license of Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0).
