Surveillance at Sea: Legal Aspects of Offshore Installation's Utilization
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Nov 1, 2020
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Abstract
As the sea possesses rich variations of resources, it also imposes threats to the security and defense interests of a nation. Oil and gas exploration is one of the most important economic activities in the sea. In Indonesia, hundreds of offshore oil and gas platforms comprise thirty percent of the total oil and gas production. This signifies the importance of their establishment to the economy. However, their potentials do not stop there. As Indonesia is comprised of a very vast water area, the surveillance system still needs improvement. The article proposes to combine these interests into manifesting a simple surveillance system in offshore oil and gas platforms to improve defense and security systems, both for maritime routes in general and also the installations. The proposal prioritizes installations that are no longer operating, shifting their functions for other beneficial means. This is supported by the current law and regulations of the sea, both at the international and national levels. The international law of the sea implies that surveillance and data collection is allowed within the jurisdictional and territorial waters, whereas national levels allow functional shifting and defense system improvement in installations as long as it is coordinated with relevant ministries.
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Afriansyah, A., & Surtiwa, S. S. (2020). Surveillance at Sea: Legal Aspects of Offshore Installation’s Utilization. Journal of Indonesian Legal Studies, 5(2), 419-448. https://doi.org/10.15294/jils.v5i2.38943
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Research Articles
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References
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Afriansyah, A., Paruna, D. & Andiani, R. (2020). (Un)Blurred Concept of Sovereign Rights at Sea: Implementation Context. Law Reform, 16(1). 133-143. https://doi.org/10.14710/lr.v16i1.30310.
Agastia, I. G. B. D. & Perwita, A.A.B. (2017-2018). Building Maritime Domain Awareness as an Essential Element of the Global Maritime Fulcrum: Challenges and Prospects for Indonesia’s Maritime Security. Jurnal Hubungan Internasional, 6(2), 113-123. https://doi.org/10.18196/hi.61109.
Arianti, E. & Ghofur, A. (2019). Teknologi Decommissioning Anjungan Lepas Pantai Terpancang Pasca-Operasi. Jurnal Inovtek Polbeng, 9(2), 271-279. https://doi.org/10.35314/ip.v9i2.1040.
Asshiddiqie, J. (2006). Konstitusi Ekonomi. Jakarta: Kompas.
Aufiya, M. A. (2017). Indonesia’s Global Maritime Fulcrum: Contribution in Indo-Pacific Region. Andalas Journal of International Studies, 6(2), 143-159. https://doi.org/10.25077/ajis.6.2.143-158.2017.
Bailey, J. E. (1985). The Exclusive Economic Zone: Its Development and Future in International and Domestic Law. Louisiana Law Review, 45(6), 1269-1297.
Bateman, S. (2007) in Ndiaye, T.M. & Wolfrum, R. (Eds.). Law of the Sea, Environmental Law and Settlement of Disputes. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.
Beckman, R., & Davenport, T. (2012, May). The EEZ regime: reflections after 30 years. In LOSI Conference papers (Vol. 27).
Bradley, S. (2011). New Zealand, France and New Caledonia: Changing relations and New Caledonia’s road to independence. Master’s Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington.
Brown, E.D. (1982). Decommissioning of Offshore Structures: Progress Report on Legal Obligations. Oil and Petrochemical Pollution, 1(2), 139-141.
Davidson, J. S. (1991). The Rainbow Warrior Arbitration concerning the Treatment of the French Agents Mafart and Prieur. The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 40(2), 446-457.
Ema, E., Saleh, A. & Budianto, H. (2018). Development Discourse of the World maritime Axis: Study on Critical Policy. Jurnal Komunikasi Pembangunan, 16(1), 43-53. https://doi.org/10.46937/16201825122.
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Foster, C.E. (2003). The Oil Platforms Case and the Use of Force in International Law. Singapore Journal of International Law, 7, 579–588.
Fowler, D. (2012). Offshore Oil: A Frontier for International Lawmaking. Journal of International & Comparative Law, XII, 182-183.
Frulli, M. (2016). On the Existence of a Customary Rule Granting Functional Immunity to State Officials and Its Exceptions: Back to Square One. Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law, 26(3), 479-502.
Garwood-Gowers, A. (2004). Case Concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran c United States of America): Did the ICJ Miss the Boat on the Law on the Use of Force? Melbourne Journal of International Law, 5, 3. https://law.unimelb.edu.au/mjil/issues/issue-archive/51.
Geng, J. (2012). The Legality of Foreign Military Activities in the Exclusive Economic Zone under UNCLOS. Merkourious, 28(74), 22-30. http://doi.org/10.5334/ujiel.ax.
Hamzah, B.A. (2013). International rules on decommissioning of offshore installations: some observations. Marine Policy, 27(4), 339-348.
Harding, C. (2006). Vingt Ans Apres: Rainbow Warrior, Legal Ordering, and Legal Complexity. Singapore Yearbook of International Law and Contributors, 10, 99–116.
Harel, A. (2012). Preventing Terrorist Attacks on Offshore Platforms: Do States Have Sufficient Legal Tools? Harvard National Security Journal, 4, 131-184.
Hendrapati, M. (2014). Pembongkaran Instalasi dan Keselamatan Pelayaran di Indonesia. Makassar: Pustaka Pena Press.
Hidayat, S. & Sidhha, A. (2018). Indonesia’s Maritime Defence Paradigm Sine Qua Non Global Maritime Fulcrum. Jurnal Pertahanan, 4(3), 136-144. http://dx.doi.org/10.33172/jp.v4i3.406.
Hughes, W. E. (2016). Fundamentals of International Oil & Gas Law. Tulsa: Pennwell Books.
Husna, C. A. (2018). Strategi Penguatan Pengelolaan Bersama Minyak dan Gas Bumi di Wilayah Laut. Jurnal Konstitusi, 15(1), 140-163.
Indonesia (1945). Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia 1945.
Indonesia (1983). Undang-Undang tentang Zona Ekonomi Ekslusif Indonesia. UU No. 5 Tahun 1983, LN. 44, TLN. 3260.
Indonesia, Menteri Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (2018). Peraturan Menteri tentang Pemeriksaan Keselamatan Instalasi dan Peralatan pada Kegiatan Usaha Minyak dan Gas Bumi, Permen ESDM No. 18 Tahun 2018, BN. 356.
Indonesia, Menteri Perhubungan (2016). Peraturan Menteri Perhubungan tentang Alur-Pelayaran di Laut dan Bangunan dan/atau Instalasi di Laut. Permenhub No. PM 129 Tahun 2016, BN. 1573.
Indonesia. (2020) Peraturan Pemerintah tentang Bangunan dan Instalasi di Laut. PP No. 6 Tahun 2020, LN. 26, TLN. 6459.
Kim, H. (2006). Military Activities in the Exclusive Economic Zone: Preventing Uncertainty and Defusing Conflict. International Law Studies, 80, 258.
Lasabuda, R. (2013). Pembangunan Wilayah Pesisir dan Lautan dalam Perspektif Negara Kepulauan Republik Indonesia. Jurnal Ilmiah Platax, 1(2), 92-101.
Lidyana, V. (2019, September 9). 10 Rig Migas di Laut Jawa dan Kaltim Mau Dibongkar. Detik.com, https://finance.detik.com/energi/d-4699078/10-rig-migas-di-laut-jawa-dan-kaltim-mau-dibongkar
Maulana, R. & Khomsin (2017). Studi Tentang Optimasi Peletakan Anjungan Minyak Lepas Pantai. Jurnal Teknik ITS, 6(1), 213-216. 10.12962/j23373539.v6i1.22024
Meyer, P.K., Nurmandi, A. & Agustiyara. (2019). Indonesia’s swift securitization of the Natuna Islands how Jakarta countered China’s claims in the South China Sea. Asian Journal of Political Science, 27(1), 70-87.
Musliana, A. (2015). Analisis Hukum Terhadap Aktivitas Pelayaran di Kawasan ALKI Ditinjau dari Perspektif UNCLOS 1982 dan PP No. 37 Tahun 2002. Undergraduate Thesis, Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar.
Nugroho, H. (2004). Pengembangan Industri Hilir Gas Bumi Indonesia: Tantangan dan Gagasan. Perencanaan Pembangunan, IX(September), 3.
Nyman, E. (2017). Maritime energy and security: Synergistic maximization of necessary tradeoffs? Energy Policy, 106, 310-314.
Oktara, D. (2016, January 26). TNI: Kekuatan Angkatan Laut Masih Kurang. Tempo.co, https://nasional.tempo.co/read/739441/tni-kekuatan-angkatan-laut-masih-kurang
Palkovitz, N. (2019). Regulating a Recolution: Small Satellites and the Law of Outer Space. Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.
Palmer, G. (2012). Perspectives on International Dispute Setttlement from a Participant. Victoria University of Wellington Law Review, 43, 39-76. https://doi.org/10.26686/vuwlr.v43i1.5046.
Pedrzo, R.P. (2014). Military Activities in the Exclusive Economic Zone: East Asia Focus. International Law Studies, 90, 525-526.
Pesch, S.T. (2015). Coastal State Jurisdiction around Installations: Safety Zones in the Law of the Sea. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 30(3), 512-532.
Ponsford, A.M., D-Souza, I. & Kirubarajan, T. (2009). ‘Surveillance of the 200 Nautical Mile EEZ Using HFSWR in Association with A Space-based AIS Interceptor’. IEEE Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security, Boston, pp. 87-92.
Purwaka, T.H. (2014). Tinjauan Hukum Laut terhadap Wilayah Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia. Mimbar Hukum, 26(3), 355-365.
Robie, D. (2016). The Rainbow Warrior, secrecy and state terrorism. Pacific Journalism Review: Te Koakoa, 22(1), 187-213.
Robie, D. (2017). The insecurity legacy of the Rainbow Warrior affair: A human rights transition from nuclear to climate-change refugees. Pacific Dynamics: Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 1(1), 133-152.
Roy-Chaudhury, R. (1998). Maritime Surveillance of the Indian EEZ. Strategic Analysis, 22(1), 49-59.
Suantika, G. & Handayanu (2003). Pemanfaatan Anjungan Minyak dan Gas Lepas Pantai Pascaproduksi. Jakarta: Pusat Riset Teknologi Kelautan.
Susanto & Munaf, D. R. (2015). Komando Pengendalian Keamanan dan Keselamatan Laut. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Swan, J. (2006). Port State Measures to Combat IUU Fishing: International and Regional Developments. Sustainable Development Law & Policy, 7(1), 38-82.
Taft IV, W.H. (2004). Self-Defense and the Oil Platforms Decision. Yale Journal of International Law, 29(2), 295-306.
Tanaka, Y. (2019). The International Law of the Sea. 3rd Ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Trevisanut, S. (2020) in Banet, C. (Ed). In The Law of the Seabed. Leiden: Brill Nijhoff.
United Nations. United Nations Charter.
United Nations. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. 1833 UNTS 397, 21 ILM 1261 (1982).
Virzo, R. (2015). Coastal State Competences Regarding Safety of Maritime Navigation: recent trends. Seqüência (Florianópolis), 71(1), 19-42.
Wicaksono, P. E. (2019, September 9). Anjungan Migas Lepas Pantai Mangkrak Bakal Disulap jadi Keramba Ikan. Liputan6.com, https://www.liputan6.com/bisnis/read/4058589/anjungan-migas-lepas-pantai-mangkrak-bakal-disulap-jadi-keramba-ikan
Afriansyah, A. (2019). Claiming Fish in the Disputed Exclusive Economic Zone: Indonesian Practice. Asia-Pacific Journal of Ocean Law and Policy, 4(2), 291–297. https://doi.org/10.1163/24519391-00402015.
Afriansyah, A., Paruna, D. & Andiani, R. (2020). (Un)Blurred Concept of Sovereign Rights at Sea: Implementation Context. Law Reform, 16(1). 133-143. https://doi.org/10.14710/lr.v16i1.30310.
Agastia, I. G. B. D. & Perwita, A.A.B. (2017-2018). Building Maritime Domain Awareness as an Essential Element of the Global Maritime Fulcrum: Challenges and Prospects for Indonesia’s Maritime Security. Jurnal Hubungan Internasional, 6(2), 113-123. https://doi.org/10.18196/hi.61109.
Arianti, E. & Ghofur, A. (2019). Teknologi Decommissioning Anjungan Lepas Pantai Terpancang Pasca-Operasi. Jurnal Inovtek Polbeng, 9(2), 271-279. https://doi.org/10.35314/ip.v9i2.1040.
Asshiddiqie, J. (2006). Konstitusi Ekonomi. Jakarta: Kompas.
Aufiya, M. A. (2017). Indonesia’s Global Maritime Fulcrum: Contribution in Indo-Pacific Region. Andalas Journal of International Studies, 6(2), 143-159. https://doi.org/10.25077/ajis.6.2.143-158.2017.
Bailey, J. E. (1985). The Exclusive Economic Zone: Its Development and Future in International and Domestic Law. Louisiana Law Review, 45(6), 1269-1297.
Bateman, S. (2007) in Ndiaye, T.M. & Wolfrum, R. (Eds.). Law of the Sea, Environmental Law and Settlement of Disputes. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.
Beckman, R., & Davenport, T. (2012, May). The EEZ regime: reflections after 30 years. In LOSI Conference papers (Vol. 27).
Bradley, S. (2011). New Zealand, France and New Caledonia: Changing relations and New Caledonia’s road to independence. Master’s Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington.
Brown, E.D. (1982). Decommissioning of Offshore Structures: Progress Report on Legal Obligations. Oil and Petrochemical Pollution, 1(2), 139-141.
Davidson, J. S. (1991). The Rainbow Warrior Arbitration concerning the Treatment of the French Agents Mafart and Prieur. The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 40(2), 446-457.
Ema, E., Saleh, A. & Budianto, H. (2018). Development Discourse of the World maritime Axis: Study on Critical Policy. Jurnal Komunikasi Pembangunan, 16(1), 43-53. https://doi.org/10.46937/16201825122.
Esmaeili, H. The Legal Regime of Offshore Oil Rigs in International Law. Abingdon: Routledge.
Foster, C.E. (2003). The Oil Platforms Case and the Use of Force in International Law. Singapore Journal of International Law, 7, 579–588.
Fowler, D. (2012). Offshore Oil: A Frontier for International Lawmaking. Journal of International & Comparative Law, XII, 182-183.
Frulli, M. (2016). On the Existence of a Customary Rule Granting Functional Immunity to State Officials and Its Exceptions: Back to Square One. Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law, 26(3), 479-502.
Garwood-Gowers, A. (2004). Case Concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran c United States of America): Did the ICJ Miss the Boat on the Law on the Use of Force? Melbourne Journal of International Law, 5, 3. https://law.unimelb.edu.au/mjil/issues/issue-archive/51.
Geng, J. (2012). The Legality of Foreign Military Activities in the Exclusive Economic Zone under UNCLOS. Merkourious, 28(74), 22-30. http://doi.org/10.5334/ujiel.ax.
Hamzah, B.A. (2013). International rules on decommissioning of offshore installations: some observations. Marine Policy, 27(4), 339-348.
Harding, C. (2006). Vingt Ans Apres: Rainbow Warrior, Legal Ordering, and Legal Complexity. Singapore Yearbook of International Law and Contributors, 10, 99–116.
Harel, A. (2012). Preventing Terrorist Attacks on Offshore Platforms: Do States Have Sufficient Legal Tools? Harvard National Security Journal, 4, 131-184.
Hendrapati, M. (2014). Pembongkaran Instalasi dan Keselamatan Pelayaran di Indonesia. Makassar: Pustaka Pena Press.
Hidayat, S. & Sidhha, A. (2018). Indonesia’s Maritime Defence Paradigm Sine Qua Non Global Maritime Fulcrum. Jurnal Pertahanan, 4(3), 136-144. http://dx.doi.org/10.33172/jp.v4i3.406.
Hughes, W. E. (2016). Fundamentals of International Oil & Gas Law. Tulsa: Pennwell Books.
Husna, C. A. (2018). Strategi Penguatan Pengelolaan Bersama Minyak dan Gas Bumi di Wilayah Laut. Jurnal Konstitusi, 15(1), 140-163.
Indonesia (1945). Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia 1945.
Indonesia (1983). Undang-Undang tentang Zona Ekonomi Ekslusif Indonesia. UU No. 5 Tahun 1983, LN. 44, TLN. 3260.
Indonesia, Menteri Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (2018). Peraturan Menteri tentang Pemeriksaan Keselamatan Instalasi dan Peralatan pada Kegiatan Usaha Minyak dan Gas Bumi, Permen ESDM No. 18 Tahun 2018, BN. 356.
Indonesia, Menteri Perhubungan (2016). Peraturan Menteri Perhubungan tentang Alur-Pelayaran di Laut dan Bangunan dan/atau Instalasi di Laut. Permenhub No. PM 129 Tahun 2016, BN. 1573.
Indonesia. (2020) Peraturan Pemerintah tentang Bangunan dan Instalasi di Laut. PP No. 6 Tahun 2020, LN. 26, TLN. 6459.
Kim, H. (2006). Military Activities in the Exclusive Economic Zone: Preventing Uncertainty and Defusing Conflict. International Law Studies, 80, 258.
Lasabuda, R. (2013). Pembangunan Wilayah Pesisir dan Lautan dalam Perspektif Negara Kepulauan Republik Indonesia. Jurnal Ilmiah Platax, 1(2), 92-101.
Lidyana, V. (2019, September 9). 10 Rig Migas di Laut Jawa dan Kaltim Mau Dibongkar. Detik.com, https://finance.detik.com/energi/d-4699078/10-rig-migas-di-laut-jawa-dan-kaltim-mau-dibongkar
Maulana, R. & Khomsin (2017). Studi Tentang Optimasi Peletakan Anjungan Minyak Lepas Pantai. Jurnal Teknik ITS, 6(1), 213-216. 10.12962/j23373539.v6i1.22024
Meyer, P.K., Nurmandi, A. & Agustiyara. (2019). Indonesia’s swift securitization of the Natuna Islands how Jakarta countered China’s claims in the South China Sea. Asian Journal of Political Science, 27(1), 70-87.
Musliana, A. (2015). Analisis Hukum Terhadap Aktivitas Pelayaran di Kawasan ALKI Ditinjau dari Perspektif UNCLOS 1982 dan PP No. 37 Tahun 2002. Undergraduate Thesis, Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar.
Nugroho, H. (2004). Pengembangan Industri Hilir Gas Bumi Indonesia: Tantangan dan Gagasan. Perencanaan Pembangunan, IX(September), 3.
Nyman, E. (2017). Maritime energy and security: Synergistic maximization of necessary tradeoffs? Energy Policy, 106, 310-314.
Oktara, D. (2016, January 26). TNI: Kekuatan Angkatan Laut Masih Kurang. Tempo.co, https://nasional.tempo.co/read/739441/tni-kekuatan-angkatan-laut-masih-kurang
Palkovitz, N. (2019). Regulating a Recolution: Small Satellites and the Law of Outer Space. Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.
Palmer, G. (2012). Perspectives on International Dispute Setttlement from a Participant. Victoria University of Wellington Law Review, 43, 39-76. https://doi.org/10.26686/vuwlr.v43i1.5046.
Pedrzo, R.P. (2014). Military Activities in the Exclusive Economic Zone: East Asia Focus. International Law Studies, 90, 525-526.
Pesch, S.T. (2015). Coastal State Jurisdiction around Installations: Safety Zones in the Law of the Sea. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 30(3), 512-532.
Ponsford, A.M., D-Souza, I. & Kirubarajan, T. (2009). ‘Surveillance of the 200 Nautical Mile EEZ Using HFSWR in Association with A Space-based AIS Interceptor’. IEEE Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security, Boston, pp. 87-92.
Purwaka, T.H. (2014). Tinjauan Hukum Laut terhadap Wilayah Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia. Mimbar Hukum, 26(3), 355-365.
Robie, D. (2016). The Rainbow Warrior, secrecy and state terrorism. Pacific Journalism Review: Te Koakoa, 22(1), 187-213.
Robie, D. (2017). The insecurity legacy of the Rainbow Warrior affair: A human rights transition from nuclear to climate-change refugees. Pacific Dynamics: Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 1(1), 133-152.
Roy-Chaudhury, R. (1998). Maritime Surveillance of the Indian EEZ. Strategic Analysis, 22(1), 49-59.
Suantika, G. & Handayanu (2003). Pemanfaatan Anjungan Minyak dan Gas Lepas Pantai Pascaproduksi. Jakarta: Pusat Riset Teknologi Kelautan.
Susanto & Munaf, D. R. (2015). Komando Pengendalian Keamanan dan Keselamatan Laut. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Swan, J. (2006). Port State Measures to Combat IUU Fishing: International and Regional Developments. Sustainable Development Law & Policy, 7(1), 38-82.
Taft IV, W.H. (2004). Self-Defense and the Oil Platforms Decision. Yale Journal of International Law, 29(2), 295-306.
Tanaka, Y. (2019). The International Law of the Sea. 3rd Ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Trevisanut, S. (2020) in Banet, C. (Ed). In The Law of the Seabed. Leiden: Brill Nijhoff.
United Nations. United Nations Charter.
United Nations. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. 1833 UNTS 397, 21 ILM 1261 (1982).
Virzo, R. (2015). Coastal State Competences Regarding Safety of Maritime Navigation: recent trends. Seqüência (Florianópolis), 71(1), 19-42.
Wicaksono, P. E. (2019, September 9). Anjungan Migas Lepas Pantai Mangkrak Bakal Disulap jadi Keramba Ikan. Liputan6.com, https://www.liputan6.com/bisnis/read/4058589/anjungan-migas-lepas-pantai-mangkrak-bakal-disulap-jadi-keramba-ikan