Women in Sport Coaching: Challenges, Stress and Wellbeing
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Abstract
With a lack of women in leadership positions in sport, there are limited role models for women pursuing coaching careers and a number of traditional gender ideologies to overcome. Female coaches therefore face unique challenges, which can be vastly different to their male counterparts. This integrative review focused on the challenges that women face in the coaching domain and the impact that these can have on their well-being. Only four articles focused solely on female coaches since 2000. Despite the lack of literature several key themes have been identified. The main stressors relate to work-life balance, prolonged periods away from family, and a need to prove they are better than male coaches. Coping strategies focused on proactive anticipation and planning, and communication with others. There is also a lack of support for female coaches and inadequate salary to assist continued engagement. Developing female coaches through mentoring and gender specific coach education programs may counteract these issues.
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References
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Bocarro, J., Greenwood, P. B., & Henderson, K. A. 2008. An integrative review of youth development research in selected United States recreation journals. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 26(2), 4.
Bruening, J. E., & Dixon, M. A. 2007. Work-family conflict in coaching ii: Managing role conflict. Journal of Sport Management, 21(4), 471-496.
Bruening, J. E., Dixon, M. A., Burton, L., & Madsen, R. 2012. Women in coaching: The work-life interface. In P. Potrac, W. Gilbert, & J. Denison (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Sports Coaching (pp. 411-423). London, UK: Taylor and Francis.
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Cronin & Allen, J. B. 2015. Developmental experiences and well-being in sport: The importance of the coaching climate. The Sport Psychologist, 29(1), 62-71.
Cutler, M. M., & Jackson, A. L. 2002. Aâ€glass ceiling†or work/family conflicts? The Journal of Business and Economic Studies, 8(2), 73-82.
Dixon, M. A., & Bruening, J. E. 2007. Work--family conflict in coaching i: A top-down perspective. Journal of Sport Management, 21(3), 377-406.
Durand-Bush, N., Collins, J., & McNeill, K. 2012. Women coaches’ experiences of stress and self-regulation: A multiple case study. International Journal of Coaching Science, 6(2), 21-43.
Fieldingâ€Lloyd, B., & Meân, L. 2011. ‘I don’t think I can catch it’: women, confidence and responsibility in football coach education. Soccer and Society, 12(3), 345-364.
Fox, C. 1999. Women’s perceived access to elite coaching positions in Australian sport. The Sport Educator, 11(2), 25-27.
Kanter, R. M. 2008. Men and women of the corporation: New edition. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Kilo, R. A., & Hassmén, P. 2016. Burnout and turnover intentions in australian coaches as related to organisational support and perceived control. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 11(2), 151-161.
Knoppers, A. 1987. Gender and the coaching profession. Quest, 39(1), 9-22.
Knoppers, A. 1992. Explaining male dominance and sex segregation in coaching: Three approaches. Quest, 44(2), 210-227.
Kubayi, A., Coopoo, Y., & Morris-Eyton, H. 2017. Work-related constraints in sports coaching: Perceptions of south african female coaches. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 12(1), 103-108.
LaVoi, N. M., & Dutove, J. K. 2012. Barriers and supports for female coaches: An ecological model. Sports Coaching Review, 1(1), 17-37.
Levy, A., Nicholls, A., Marchant, D., & Polman, R. 2009. Organisational stressors, coping, and coping effectiveness: A longitudinal study with an elite coach. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 4(1), 31-45.
Lewis, C. J., Roberts, S. J., & Andrews, H. 2018. ‘Why am I putting myself through this?’Women football coaches’ experiences of the Football Association’s coach education process. Sport, Education and Society, 23(1), 28-39.
Lonsdale, C., Hodge, K., & Rose, E. 2009. Athlete burnout in elite sport: A self-determination perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(8), 785-795.
Lundkvist, E., Gustafsson, H., Hjälm, S., & Hassmén, P. 2012. An interpretative phenomenological analysis of burnout and recovery in elite soccer coaches. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 4(3), 400-419.
McKay, J., Niven, A. G., Lavallee, D., & White, A. 2008. Sources of strain among elite UK track athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 22(2), 143-163.
Mellalieu, S. D., Neil, R., Hanton, S., & Fletcher, D. 2009. Competition stress in sport performers: Stressors experienced in the competition environment. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(7), 729-744.
Norman, L. 2010. Feeling second best: Elite women coaches’ experiences. Sociology of Sport Journal, 27(1), 89-104.
Norman, L. 2012. Developing female coaches: Strategies from women themselves. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education, 3(3), 227-238.
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Norris, L. A., Didymus, F. F., & Kaiseler, M. 2017. Stressors, coping, and well-being among sports coaches: A systematic review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 33, 93-112.
Olusoga, P., Butt, J., Hays, K., & Maynard, I. 2009. Stress in elite sports coaching: Identifying stressors. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(4), 442-459.
Olusoga, P., Butt, J., Maynard, I., & Hays, K. 2010. Stress and coping: A study of world class coaches. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22(3), 274-293.
Olusoga, P., Maynard, I., Butt, J., & Hays, K. 2014. Coaching under pressure: Mental skills training for sports coaches. Sport and Exercise Psychology Review, 10(3), 31-44.
Pastore, D. L., & Judd, M. R. 1993. Gender differences in burnout among coaches of women’s athletic teams at 2-year colleges. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10(2), 205-212.
Roffey, K. 2001. Reasons for shortages of female coaches. The Sport Educator, 13(2), 39-40.
Schlesinger, T., & Weigelt-Schlesinger, Y. 2012. ‘Poor thing’ or ‘wow, she knows how to do it’ – gender stereotypes as barriers to women’s qualification in the education of soccer coaches. Soccer and Society, 13(1), 56-72.
Shaw, S., & Allen, J. B. 2009. The experiences of high performance women coaches: A case study of two regional sport organisations. Sport Management Review, 12(4), 217-228.
Stebbings, J., Taylor, I. M., & Spray, C. M. 2011. Antecedents of perceived coach autonomy supportive and controlling behaviors: Coach psychological need satisfaction and well-being. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 33(2), 255-272.
Stebbings, J., Taylor, I. M., Spray, C. M., & Ntoumanis, N. 2012. Antecedents of perceived coach interpersonal behaviors: The coaching environment and coach psychological well- and ill-being. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 34(4), 481-502.
Thelwell, R. C., Weston, N. J. V., Greenlees, I. A., & Hutchings, N. V. 2008. Stressors in elite sport: A coach perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26(9), 905-918.
Vinson, D., Christian, P., Jones, V., Williams, C., & Peters, D. M. 2016. Exploring how well uk coach education meets the needs of women sports coaches. International Sport Coaching Journal, 3(3), 287-302.
Whittemore, R., & Knafl, K. 2005. The integrative review: updated methodology. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 52(5), 546-553.
Williams, C. L. 1995. Still a man’s world: Men who do women’s work. Berkeley, CA: Univ of California Press
Bocarro, J., Greenwood, P. B., & Henderson, K. A. 2008. An integrative review of youth development research in selected United States recreation journals. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 26(2), 4.
Bruening, J. E., & Dixon, M. A. 2007. Work-family conflict in coaching ii: Managing role conflict. Journal of Sport Management, 21(4), 471-496.
Bruening, J. E., Dixon, M. A., Burton, L., & Madsen, R. 2012. Women in coaching: The work-life interface. In P. Potrac, W. Gilbert, & J. Denison (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Sports Coaching (pp. 411-423). London, UK: Taylor and Francis.
Caccese, T. M., & Mayerberg, C. K. 1984. Gender differences in perceived burnout of college coaches. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6(3), 279-288.
Cronin & Allen, J. B. 2015. Developmental experiences and well-being in sport: The importance of the coaching climate. The Sport Psychologist, 29(1), 62-71.
Cutler, M. M., & Jackson, A. L. 2002. Aâ€glass ceiling†or work/family conflicts? The Journal of Business and Economic Studies, 8(2), 73-82.
Dixon, M. A., & Bruening, J. E. 2007. Work--family conflict in coaching i: A top-down perspective. Journal of Sport Management, 21(3), 377-406.
Durand-Bush, N., Collins, J., & McNeill, K. 2012. Women coaches’ experiences of stress and self-regulation: A multiple case study. International Journal of Coaching Science, 6(2), 21-43.
Fieldingâ€Lloyd, B., & Meân, L. 2011. ‘I don’t think I can catch it’: women, confidence and responsibility in football coach education. Soccer and Society, 12(3), 345-364.
Fox, C. 1999. Women’s perceived access to elite coaching positions in Australian sport. The Sport Educator, 11(2), 25-27.
Kanter, R. M. 2008. Men and women of the corporation: New edition. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Kilo, R. A., & Hassmén, P. 2016. Burnout and turnover intentions in australian coaches as related to organisational support and perceived control. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 11(2), 151-161.
Knoppers, A. 1987. Gender and the coaching profession. Quest, 39(1), 9-22.
Knoppers, A. 1992. Explaining male dominance and sex segregation in coaching: Three approaches. Quest, 44(2), 210-227.
Kubayi, A., Coopoo, Y., & Morris-Eyton, H. 2017. Work-related constraints in sports coaching: Perceptions of south african female coaches. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 12(1), 103-108.
LaVoi, N. M., & Dutove, J. K. 2012. Barriers and supports for female coaches: An ecological model. Sports Coaching Review, 1(1), 17-37.
Levy, A., Nicholls, A., Marchant, D., & Polman, R. 2009. Organisational stressors, coping, and coping effectiveness: A longitudinal study with an elite coach. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 4(1), 31-45.
Lewis, C. J., Roberts, S. J., & Andrews, H. 2018. ‘Why am I putting myself through this?’Women football coaches’ experiences of the Football Association’s coach education process. Sport, Education and Society, 23(1), 28-39.
Lonsdale, C., Hodge, K., & Rose, E. 2009. Athlete burnout in elite sport: A self-determination perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(8), 785-795.
Lundkvist, E., Gustafsson, H., Hjälm, S., & Hassmén, P. 2012. An interpretative phenomenological analysis of burnout and recovery in elite soccer coaches. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 4(3), 400-419.
McKay, J., Niven, A. G., Lavallee, D., & White, A. 2008. Sources of strain among elite UK track athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 22(2), 143-163.
Mellalieu, S. D., Neil, R., Hanton, S., & Fletcher, D. 2009. Competition stress in sport performers: Stressors experienced in the competition environment. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(7), 729-744.
Norman, L. 2010. Feeling second best: Elite women coaches’ experiences. Sociology of Sport Journal, 27(1), 89-104.
Norman, L. 2012. Developing female coaches: Strategies from women themselves. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education, 3(3), 227-238.
Norman, L., Didymus, F. F., & Rankin-Wright, A. J. 2016. Understanding occupational wellbeing and women sports coaches. Executive report retrieved from Leeds, UK: Sports Coach UK
Norris, L. A., Didymus, F. F., & Kaiseler, M. 2017. Stressors, coping, and well-being among sports coaches: A systematic review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 33, 93-112.
Olusoga, P., Butt, J., Hays, K., & Maynard, I. 2009. Stress in elite sports coaching: Identifying stressors. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(4), 442-459.
Olusoga, P., Butt, J., Maynard, I., & Hays, K. 2010. Stress and coping: A study of world class coaches. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22(3), 274-293.
Olusoga, P., Maynard, I., Butt, J., & Hays, K. 2014. Coaching under pressure: Mental skills training for sports coaches. Sport and Exercise Psychology Review, 10(3), 31-44.
Pastore, D. L., & Judd, M. R. 1993. Gender differences in burnout among coaches of women’s athletic teams at 2-year colleges. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10(2), 205-212.
Roffey, K. 2001. Reasons for shortages of female coaches. The Sport Educator, 13(2), 39-40.
Schlesinger, T., & Weigelt-Schlesinger, Y. 2012. ‘Poor thing’ or ‘wow, she knows how to do it’ – gender stereotypes as barriers to women’s qualification in the education of soccer coaches. Soccer and Society, 13(1), 56-72.
Shaw, S., & Allen, J. B. 2009. The experiences of high performance women coaches: A case study of two regional sport organisations. Sport Management Review, 12(4), 217-228.
Stebbings, J., Taylor, I. M., & Spray, C. M. 2011. Antecedents of perceived coach autonomy supportive and controlling behaviors: Coach psychological need satisfaction and well-being. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 33(2), 255-272.
Stebbings, J., Taylor, I. M., Spray, C. M., & Ntoumanis, N. 2012. Antecedents of perceived coach interpersonal behaviors: The coaching environment and coach psychological well- and ill-being. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 34(4), 481-502.
Thelwell, R. C., Weston, N. J. V., Greenlees, I. A., & Hutchings, N. V. 2008. Stressors in elite sport: A coach perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26(9), 905-918.
Vinson, D., Christian, P., Jones, V., Williams, C., & Peters, D. M. 2016. Exploring how well uk coach education meets the needs of women sports coaches. International Sport Coaching Journal, 3(3), 287-302.
Whittemore, R., & Knafl, K. 2005. The integrative review: updated methodology. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 52(5), 546-553.
Williams, C. L. 1995. Still a man’s world: Men who do women’s work. Berkeley, CA: Univ of California Press