Physical Fitness and Executive Functions in Preschool Children
Main Article Content
Abstract
Neurophysiological maturity plays a crucial role for the school adjustment of preshool children. It also affects Executive Function (EF) as the ability to regulate behavior and to control children's emotions. The children’ neurophysiological maturity is influenced by the physical fitness level. Children with better fitness can do better physical and psychological activity than children who are not fit. This study aims at revealing the relationship between physical fitness and EF as well as each of its components towards preschool children. It is also to measure the role of maternal education level and family income as a moderator of the relationship between physical fitness and EF in preschool children. Subjects in this study were 224 children (male = 110, female = 114) aged 60 months - 84 months in Magelang City. The results showed that physical fitness is positively influence to EF in which the more fit child will achieve better EF abilities. This study also found that maternal education level and family income were not moderators of the relationship between fitness and EF. The results of this study can have implications to raise an understanding on the benefits of physical activity and fitness for children.
Article Details
Section
Articles
References
Armstrong, K., Rakhit, D., Jeffriess, L., Johnson, D., Leano, R., Prins, J., … Isbel, N. (2006). Cardiorespiratory Fitness Is Related to Physical Inactivity, Metabolic Risk Factors, and Atherosclerotic Burden in Glucose-Intolerant Renal Transplant Recipients. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 1(6), 1275–1283. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.00210106
Barkley, R. A., & Lombroso, P. J. (2000). Genetics of childhood disorders: XVII. ADHD, Part 1: The executive functions and ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(8), 1064–1068.
Barnett, W. S. (2008). Preschool Education and Its Lasting Effects: Research and Policy Implications. National Institute for Early Education Research Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 37.
Best, J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30(4), 331–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2010.08.001
Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children’s functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57(2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.57.2.111
Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.). (2013). Handbook of Parenting: Volume 2 Biology and Ecology of Parenting (0 ed.). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410612144
Buck, S. M., Hillman, C. H., & Castelli, D. M. (2008). The Relation of Aerobic Fitness to Stroop Task Performance in Preadolescent Children: Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40(1), 166–172. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e318159b035
Casey, B. J., Tottenham, N., Liston, C., & Durston, S. (2005). Imaging the developing brain: what have we learned about cognitive development? TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences, 9(3). https://doi.org/:10.1016/j.tics.2005.01.011
Chaddock, L., Erickson, K. I., Prakash, R. S., VanPatter, M., Voss, M. W., Pontifex, M. B., … Kramer, A. F. (2010). Basal Ganglia Volume Is Associated with Aerobic Fitness in Preadolescent Children. Developmental Neuroscience, 32(3), 249–256. https://doi.org/10.1159/000316648
Diamond, A. (2006). The early development of executive functions. Lifespan Cognition: Mechanisms of Change, 210, 70–95.
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to Aid Executive Function Development in Children 4–12 Years Old. Science (New York, N.Y.), 333(6045), 959–964. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
Eldreth, D. A., Patterson, M. D., Porcelli, A. J., Biswal, B. B., & Rypma, B. (2006). Evidence for multiple manipulation processes in prefrontal cortex. Brain Research, 1123, 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2006.07.129
Etnier, J. L., Nowell, P. M., Landers, D. M., & Sibley, B. A. (2006). A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Research Reviews, 52(1), 119–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.01.002
Fedewa, A. L., & Ahn, S. (2011). The Effects of Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Children’s Achievement and Cognitive Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82(3), 521–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599785
Fritzell, J., & Ritakallio, V.-M. (2010). Societal shifts and changed patterns of poverty. International Journal of Social Welfare, 19(s1), S25–S41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2397.2010.00728.x
Gao, W., Lin, W., Chen, Y., Gerig, G., Smith, J. K., Jewells, V., & Gilmore, J. H. (2009). Temporal and Spatial Development of Axonal Maturation and Myelination of White Matter in the Developing Brain. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 30(2), 290–296. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A1363
Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., … Rapoport, J. L. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience, 2(10), 861–863. https://doi.org/10.1038/13158
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., … Thompson, P. M. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101(21), 8174–8179. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0402680101
Hermahayu, & Wimbarti, S. (2017). Perkembangan Executive Functions PPada Anak Prasekolah di Kota Magelang. Edukasi, Jurnal Penelitian Dan Artikel Pendidikan, 9(2), 121–137.
Hermoye, L., Saint-Martin, C., Cosnard, G., Lee, S.-K., Kim, J., Nassogne, M.-C., … Mori, S. (2006). Pediatric diffusion tensor imaging: Normal database and observation of the white matter maturation in early childhood. NeuroImage, 29(2), 493–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.08.017
Hillman, C. H., Buck, S. M., Themanson, J. R., Pontifex, M. B., & Castelli, D. M. (2009). Aerobic fitness and cognitive development: Event-related brain potential and task performance indices of executive control in preadolescent children. Developmental Psychology, 45(1), 114–129. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014437
Hoffâ€Ginsberg. (1991). Motherâ€Child Conversation in Different Social Classes and Communicative Settings. Retrieved July 9, 2019, from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01569.x
Hurlock, E. B. (2001). Developmental psychology. Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
Huttenlocher, P. R., & Dabholkar, A. S. (1997). Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 387(2), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19971020)387:2<167::AID-CNE1>3.0.CO;2-Z
Johnson, P. C. D., Logue, J., McConnachie, A., Abu-Rmeileh, N. M. E., Hart, C., Upton, M. N., … Watt, G. (2012). Intergenerational change and familial aggregation of body mass index. European Journal of Epidemiology, 27(1), 53–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-011-9639-5
Krivolapchuk, I. A., & Chernova, M. B. (2012). Psychophysiological factors of school readiness in six-year-old children. Human Physiology, 38(3), 264–270. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0362119712020120
Ladd, G. W., Herald, S. L., & Kochel, K. P. (2006). School Readiness: Are There Social Prerequisites? Early Education and Development, 17(1), 115–150. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15566935eed1701_6
Lambourne, K., Hansen, D. M., Szabo, A. N., Lee, J., Herrmann, S. D., & Donnelly, J. E. (2013). Indirect and direct relations between aerobic fitness, physical activity, and academic achievement in elementary school students. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 6(3), 165–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2013.06.002
Lenroot, R. K., & Giedd, J. N. (2006). Brain development in children and adolescents: Insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(6), 718–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.001
Mackenzie (Ed.). (2005). 101 Performance Evaluation Tests. London: Electric Word plc.
Matsuzawa, J. (2001). Age-related Volumetric Changes of Brain Gray and White Matter in Healthy Infants and Children. Cerebral Cortex, 11(4), 335–342. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/11.4.335
Miller, M. R., Giesbrecht, G. F., Müller, U., McInerney, R. J., & Kerns, K. A. (2012). A Latent Variable Approach to Determining the Structure of Executive Function in Preschool Children. Journal of Cognition and Development, 13(3), 395–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2011.585478
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe†Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Monette, S., Bigras, M., & Guay, M.-C. (2011). The role of the executive functions in school achievement at the end of Grade 1. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109(2), 158–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2011.01.008
Monyeki, M. A., Koppes, L. L. J., Monyeki, K. D., Kemper, H. C. G., & Twisk, J. W. R. (2007). Longitudinal relationships between nutritional status, body composition, and physical fitness in rural children of South Africa: The Ellisras longitudinal study. American Journal of Human Biology, 19(4), 551–558. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20616
Moriguchi, Y., & Hiraki, K. (2011). Longitudinal development of prefrontal function during early childhood. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1(2), 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2010.12.004
Ortega, F. B., Ruiz, J. R., Castillo, M. J., & Sjöström, M. (2008). Physical fitness in childhood and adolescence: a powerful marker of health. International Journal of Obesity, 32(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0803774
Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Johnson, C. R., Chaddock, L., Voss, M. W., Cohen, N. J., … Hillman, C. H. (2011). Cardiorespiratory Fitness and the Flexible Modulation of Cognitive Control in Preadolescent Children. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(6), 1332–1345. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2010.21528
Prasepty, W., Sugiharto, & Rumini. (2017). Pengembangan Instrumen Tes Kebugaran Jasmani untuk Anak TK Usia 4-6 Tahun. Journal of Physical Education and Sports, 6(2), 205–210.
Reinert, K. R. S., Po’e, K. E., & Barkin, S. L. (2013). he relationship between executive function and obesity in children and adolescents: a systematic literature review. J Obes, 1–10.
Ruiz, J. R., Ortega, F. B., Gutierrez, A., Meusel, D., Sjöström, M., & Castillo, M. J. (2006). Health-related fitness assessment in childhood and adolescence: a European approach based on the AVENA, EYHS and HELENA studies. Journal of Public Health, 14(5), 269–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-006-0059-z
Sharkey, P. (2010). The acute effect of local homicides on children’s cognitive performance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(26), 11733–11738. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1000690107
Shimamura, A. P. (2000). The role of the prefrontal cortex in dynamic filtering. 12.
Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic Status and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analytic Review of Research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003417
Sowell, E. R. (2004). Longitudinal Mapping of Cortical Thickness and Brain Growth in Normal Children. Journal of Neuroscience, 24(38), 8223–8231. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1798-04.2004
Taki, Y., Hashizume, H., Sassa, Y., Takeuchi, H., Asano, M., Asano, K., … Kawashima, R. (2012). Correlation among body height, intelligence, and brain gray matter volume in healthy children. NeuroImage, 59(2), 1023–1027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.08.092
Tau, G. Z., & Peterson, B. S. (2010). Normal Development of Brain Circuits. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(1), 147–168. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.115
Tsujimoto, Satoshi. (2008). The Prefrontal Cortex: Functional Neural Development During Early Childhood. The Neuroscientist, 14(4), 345–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858408316002
Tsujimoto, Satoshi, Yamamoto, T., Kawaguchi, H., Koizumi, H., & Sawaguchi, T. (2004). Prefrontal Cortical Activation Associated with Working Memory in Adults and Preschool Children: An Event-related Optical Topography Study. Cerebral Cortex, 14(7), 703–712. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhh030
Vale, S., Trost, S. G., Duncan, M. J., & Mota, J. (2015). Step based physical activity guidelines for preschool-aged children. Preventive Medicine, 70, 78–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.11.008
van der Niet, A. G., Hartman, E., Smith, J., & Visscher, C. (2014). Modeling relationships between physical fitness, executive functioning, and academic achievement in primary school children. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(4), 319–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.02.010
Weinstein, A. M., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Chaddock, L., Szabo, A., White, S. M., … Erickson, K. I. (2012). The association between aerobic fitness and executive function is mediated by prefrontal cortex volume. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 26(5), 811–819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2011.11.008
Willoughby, Michael T. Blair, Clancy B. (2016). Measuring executive function in early childhood: A case for formative measurement. 28(3), 319–330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pas0000152
Wolfe, C. D., & Bell, M. A. (2004, January 1). Working memory and inhibitory control in early childhood: Contributions from physiology, temperament, and language. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.10152
Yamamoto, N., & Imai-Matsumura, K. (2019). Gender differences in executive function and behavioural self-regulation in 5 years old kindergarteners from East Japan. Early Child Development and Care, 189(1), 56–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1299148
Barkley, R. A., & Lombroso, P. J. (2000). Genetics of childhood disorders: XVII. ADHD, Part 1: The executive functions and ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(8), 1064–1068.
Barnett, W. S. (2008). Preschool Education and Its Lasting Effects: Research and Policy Implications. National Institute for Early Education Research Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 37.
Best, J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30(4), 331–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2010.08.001
Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children’s functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57(2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.57.2.111
Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.). (2013). Handbook of Parenting: Volume 2 Biology and Ecology of Parenting (0 ed.). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410612144
Buck, S. M., Hillman, C. H., & Castelli, D. M. (2008). The Relation of Aerobic Fitness to Stroop Task Performance in Preadolescent Children: Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40(1), 166–172. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e318159b035
Casey, B. J., Tottenham, N., Liston, C., & Durston, S. (2005). Imaging the developing brain: what have we learned about cognitive development? TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences, 9(3). https://doi.org/:10.1016/j.tics.2005.01.011
Chaddock, L., Erickson, K. I., Prakash, R. S., VanPatter, M., Voss, M. W., Pontifex, M. B., … Kramer, A. F. (2010). Basal Ganglia Volume Is Associated with Aerobic Fitness in Preadolescent Children. Developmental Neuroscience, 32(3), 249–256. https://doi.org/10.1159/000316648
Diamond, A. (2006). The early development of executive functions. Lifespan Cognition: Mechanisms of Change, 210, 70–95.
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to Aid Executive Function Development in Children 4–12 Years Old. Science (New York, N.Y.), 333(6045), 959–964. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
Eldreth, D. A., Patterson, M. D., Porcelli, A. J., Biswal, B. B., & Rypma, B. (2006). Evidence for multiple manipulation processes in prefrontal cortex. Brain Research, 1123, 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2006.07.129
Etnier, J. L., Nowell, P. M., Landers, D. M., & Sibley, B. A. (2006). A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Research Reviews, 52(1), 119–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.01.002
Fedewa, A. L., & Ahn, S. (2011). The Effects of Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Children’s Achievement and Cognitive Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82(3), 521–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599785
Fritzell, J., & Ritakallio, V.-M. (2010). Societal shifts and changed patterns of poverty. International Journal of Social Welfare, 19(s1), S25–S41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2397.2010.00728.x
Gao, W., Lin, W., Chen, Y., Gerig, G., Smith, J. K., Jewells, V., & Gilmore, J. H. (2009). Temporal and Spatial Development of Axonal Maturation and Myelination of White Matter in the Developing Brain. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 30(2), 290–296. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A1363
Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., … Rapoport, J. L. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience, 2(10), 861–863. https://doi.org/10.1038/13158
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., … Thompson, P. M. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101(21), 8174–8179. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0402680101
Hermahayu, & Wimbarti, S. (2017). Perkembangan Executive Functions PPada Anak Prasekolah di Kota Magelang. Edukasi, Jurnal Penelitian Dan Artikel Pendidikan, 9(2), 121–137.
Hermoye, L., Saint-Martin, C., Cosnard, G., Lee, S.-K., Kim, J., Nassogne, M.-C., … Mori, S. (2006). Pediatric diffusion tensor imaging: Normal database and observation of the white matter maturation in early childhood. NeuroImage, 29(2), 493–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.08.017
Hillman, C. H., Buck, S. M., Themanson, J. R., Pontifex, M. B., & Castelli, D. M. (2009). Aerobic fitness and cognitive development: Event-related brain potential and task performance indices of executive control in preadolescent children. Developmental Psychology, 45(1), 114–129. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014437
Hoffâ€Ginsberg. (1991). Motherâ€Child Conversation in Different Social Classes and Communicative Settings. Retrieved July 9, 2019, from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01569.x
Hurlock, E. B. (2001). Developmental psychology. Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
Huttenlocher, P. R., & Dabholkar, A. S. (1997). Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 387(2), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19971020)387:2<167::AID-CNE1>3.0.CO;2-Z
Johnson, P. C. D., Logue, J., McConnachie, A., Abu-Rmeileh, N. M. E., Hart, C., Upton, M. N., … Watt, G. (2012). Intergenerational change and familial aggregation of body mass index. European Journal of Epidemiology, 27(1), 53–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-011-9639-5
Krivolapchuk, I. A., & Chernova, M. B. (2012). Psychophysiological factors of school readiness in six-year-old children. Human Physiology, 38(3), 264–270. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0362119712020120
Ladd, G. W., Herald, S. L., & Kochel, K. P. (2006). School Readiness: Are There Social Prerequisites? Early Education and Development, 17(1), 115–150. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15566935eed1701_6
Lambourne, K., Hansen, D. M., Szabo, A. N., Lee, J., Herrmann, S. D., & Donnelly, J. E. (2013). Indirect and direct relations between aerobic fitness, physical activity, and academic achievement in elementary school students. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 6(3), 165–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2013.06.002
Lenroot, R. K., & Giedd, J. N. (2006). Brain development in children and adolescents: Insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(6), 718–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.001
Mackenzie (Ed.). (2005). 101 Performance Evaluation Tests. London: Electric Word plc.
Matsuzawa, J. (2001). Age-related Volumetric Changes of Brain Gray and White Matter in Healthy Infants and Children. Cerebral Cortex, 11(4), 335–342. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/11.4.335
Miller, M. R., Giesbrecht, G. F., Müller, U., McInerney, R. J., & Kerns, K. A. (2012). A Latent Variable Approach to Determining the Structure of Executive Function in Preschool Children. Journal of Cognition and Development, 13(3), 395–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2011.585478
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe†Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Monette, S., Bigras, M., & Guay, M.-C. (2011). The role of the executive functions in school achievement at the end of Grade 1. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109(2), 158–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2011.01.008
Monyeki, M. A., Koppes, L. L. J., Monyeki, K. D., Kemper, H. C. G., & Twisk, J. W. R. (2007). Longitudinal relationships between nutritional status, body composition, and physical fitness in rural children of South Africa: The Ellisras longitudinal study. American Journal of Human Biology, 19(4), 551–558. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20616
Moriguchi, Y., & Hiraki, K. (2011). Longitudinal development of prefrontal function during early childhood. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1(2), 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2010.12.004
Ortega, F. B., Ruiz, J. R., Castillo, M. J., & Sjöström, M. (2008). Physical fitness in childhood and adolescence: a powerful marker of health. International Journal of Obesity, 32(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0803774
Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Johnson, C. R., Chaddock, L., Voss, M. W., Cohen, N. J., … Hillman, C. H. (2011). Cardiorespiratory Fitness and the Flexible Modulation of Cognitive Control in Preadolescent Children. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(6), 1332–1345. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2010.21528
Prasepty, W., Sugiharto, & Rumini. (2017). Pengembangan Instrumen Tes Kebugaran Jasmani untuk Anak TK Usia 4-6 Tahun. Journal of Physical Education and Sports, 6(2), 205–210.
Reinert, K. R. S., Po’e, K. E., & Barkin, S. L. (2013). he relationship between executive function and obesity in children and adolescents: a systematic literature review. J Obes, 1–10.
Ruiz, J. R., Ortega, F. B., Gutierrez, A., Meusel, D., Sjöström, M., & Castillo, M. J. (2006). Health-related fitness assessment in childhood and adolescence: a European approach based on the AVENA, EYHS and HELENA studies. Journal of Public Health, 14(5), 269–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-006-0059-z
Sharkey, P. (2010). The acute effect of local homicides on children’s cognitive performance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(26), 11733–11738. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1000690107
Shimamura, A. P. (2000). The role of the prefrontal cortex in dynamic filtering. 12.
Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic Status and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analytic Review of Research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003417
Sowell, E. R. (2004). Longitudinal Mapping of Cortical Thickness and Brain Growth in Normal Children. Journal of Neuroscience, 24(38), 8223–8231. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1798-04.2004
Taki, Y., Hashizume, H., Sassa, Y., Takeuchi, H., Asano, M., Asano, K., … Kawashima, R. (2012). Correlation among body height, intelligence, and brain gray matter volume in healthy children. NeuroImage, 59(2), 1023–1027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.08.092
Tau, G. Z., & Peterson, B. S. (2010). Normal Development of Brain Circuits. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(1), 147–168. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.115
Tsujimoto, Satoshi. (2008). The Prefrontal Cortex: Functional Neural Development During Early Childhood. The Neuroscientist, 14(4), 345–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858408316002
Tsujimoto, Satoshi, Yamamoto, T., Kawaguchi, H., Koizumi, H., & Sawaguchi, T. (2004). Prefrontal Cortical Activation Associated with Working Memory in Adults and Preschool Children: An Event-related Optical Topography Study. Cerebral Cortex, 14(7), 703–712. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhh030
Vale, S., Trost, S. G., Duncan, M. J., & Mota, J. (2015). Step based physical activity guidelines for preschool-aged children. Preventive Medicine, 70, 78–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.11.008
van der Niet, A. G., Hartman, E., Smith, J., & Visscher, C. (2014). Modeling relationships between physical fitness, executive functioning, and academic achievement in primary school children. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(4), 319–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.02.010
Weinstein, A. M., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Chaddock, L., Szabo, A., White, S. M., … Erickson, K. I. (2012). The association between aerobic fitness and executive function is mediated by prefrontal cortex volume. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 26(5), 811–819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2011.11.008
Willoughby, Michael T. Blair, Clancy B. (2016). Measuring executive function in early childhood: A case for formative measurement. 28(3), 319–330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pas0000152
Wolfe, C. D., & Bell, M. A. (2004, January 1). Working memory and inhibitory control in early childhood: Contributions from physiology, temperament, and language. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.10152
Yamamoto, N., & Imai-Matsumura, K. (2019). Gender differences in executive function and behavioural self-regulation in 5 years old kindergarteners from East Japan. Early Child Development and Care, 189(1), 56–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1299148