Functional Immunity and Mens Rea: Rethinking Criminal Liability of Notaries as Public Officials
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15294/ijcls.v11i1.40401Keywords:
Criminal Liability, Functional Immunity, Mens Rea, Notaries, Public OfficialsAbstract
The criminal prosecution of notaries for acts performed within their statutory duties raises a fundamental question regarding the proper boundary of criminal liability for public officials. In criminal law, liability is grounded in the principle of culpability, commonly expressed as nullum delictum, nulla culpa (no punishment without fault), which requires subjective fault as a prerequisite for punishment. This principle has long been emphasized by criminal law scholars such as Jan Remmelink and Moeljatno, who argue that criminal liability can arise only when fault is present and no exculpatory grounds exist. In the Indonesian context, this principle has been explicitly codified in Law No. 1 of 2023 on the Criminal Code, particularly under Articles 22 and 36–44, which emphasize fault-based criminal liability and the relevance of personal circumstances in determining culpability. Despite this normative clarity, the application of criminal law to notaries often raises doctrinal tension, especially when formal notarial acts are linked to unlawful outcomes without clear proof of intention, knowledge, or negligence. This article examines the criminal liability of notaries as public officials through the lens of mens rea and functional immunity to reassess the legitimacy of penal intervention against notarial acts. Employing a doctrinal and comparative legal approach, this research analyzes criminal liability theory alongside legal frameworks in Indonesia, the Netherlands, and France. The study finds that criminal liability must be strictly grounded in subjective fault, and that notarial acts performed within statutory authority require careful differentiation between formal duties and personal misconduct. The article argues that, rather than assuming the absence of liability, the assessment of notarial responsibility must be based on a structured evaluation of mens rea, while recognizing the need for proportional legal protection for acts performed within official capacity. This approach aims to prevent overcriminalization while maintaining accountability, thereby aligning the enforcement of criminal law with the fundamental principle of culpability.
References
Ababei, R I. “Functional Immunity in Relation to Crimes Pursuant to International Law.” Romanian J. Int’l L., 2024.
Abdillah, Satrio. “Batasan Kewenangan Dan Tanggung Jawab Notaris-PPAT Dalam Edukasi Prosedur Pembuatan Akta Otentik Ditinjau Dari Pasal 51 KUHP.” Journal of Education Research 4, no. 1 (2023): 67–72. https://doi.org/10.37985/jer.v4i1.125.
Agnes Nova Randomis. “Regulation of Legal Protection for Notaries in Performing Official Duties to Ensure Legal Certainty and Justice.” International Journal of Social Service and Research 5, no. 10 (2025): 1269–75. https://doi.org/10.46799/ijssr.v5i10.1333.
Akande, Dapo, and Sangeeta Shah. “Immunities of State Officials, International Crimes, and Foreign Domestic Courts.” European Journal of International Law 21, no. 4 (2010): 815–52. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chq080.
Akbar, Adi, Desi Kumalasari, Rizal Alamsyah Hadi Saputra, Yekti Mahardika, and Uktamjon Zarifjon Ugli Tukhtaev. “Proliferation of Policies on Notarial Supervisory Institutions Based on Justice.” Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System 5, no. 3 (2025): 833–64. https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v5i3.789.
Alfatahri, Muhammad, Azhari Yahya, and Muazzin. “The Responsibility of the Notary Regarding the Fulfillment of the Elements of Article 41 of the Notary Office Law.” Beijing Law Review 13, no. 01 (2022): 81–96. https://doi.org/10.4236/blr.2022.131005.
Alifah, Mauliawati. “Notary Investigation in Making Copies of CV’s Deed Establishment Which Different Numbers in Minuta.” Sultan Agung Notary Law Review. download.garuda.kemdikbud.go.id, 2021. https://doi.org/10.30659/sanlar.3.3.833-846.
Ananta, Gede Amatya, I Made Arjaya, and Anak Agung Istri Agung. “Law Enforcement and Protection of Notaries in the Criminal Domain and Law of Notary Position (Case Study of Decision Number 196/Pid.B/2019/Pn Denpasar).” NOTARIIL Jurnal Kenotariatan 6, no. 1 (2021): 38–45. https://doi.org/10.22225/jn.6.1.3612.38-45.
Baihaqi, Mahfud. “Analysis of Notary Immunity Laws That Open Confidentials in Trial Based on Act No. 2 of 2014 Concerning Amendment to Act No. 30 Of 2004 Concerning Notary Office (Case Study Decision Number 83 / PID.B / 2011 / PN. SKA).” Sultan Agung Notary Law Review. academia.edu, 2020. https://doi.org/10.30659/sanlar.2.4.570-591.
Budiansyah, Ahda. “Notary Responsibility Who Has Ended His Tenure on Notary ’ S Protocol and Deed.” Tanggung Jawab Notaris Yang Telah Berakhir Masa Jabatannya Terhadap Akta Dan Protokol Notaris IV, no. November 2011 (2016): 45.
Budiono, Arief, Dito Pratama Adi Sugiarto, and Syaifuddin Zuhdi. “Legal Protection for Notaries in Making Authentic Deeds in Indonesia.” Journal of Judicial Review. academia.edu, 2023. https://doi.org/10.37253/jjr.v25i1.7612.
“Décret N° 2023-1297 Du 28 Décembre 2023 Relatif Au Code de Déontologie Des Notaires - Légifrance,” n.d.
Elezi, A. “Criminal Liability of Legal Entities.” Balkan Journal Of. sciendo.com, 2024. https://doi.org/10.2478/bjir-2024-0027.
Epik, A, and J Geneuss. “Without a Doubt: German Federal Court Rules No Functional Immunity for Crimes Under International Law.” Verfassungsblog From, 2024.
Epik, Aziz. “No Functional Immunity for Crimes under International Law before Foreign Domestic Courts An Unequivocal Message from the German Federal Court of Justice.” Journal of International Criminal Justice 19, no. 5 (2021): 1263–81. https://doi.org/10.1093/jicj/mqab071.
Florencia Magnis, Butar-butar, Suteki. “Exemptions from Liability in Indonesian Criminal Law Reform.” Annals of R.S.C.B, 2021.
French-property. “The Notaire and His Role in France, the French Notary | French-Property.Com,” n.d.
Frulli, M. “For All or for Some? Functional Immunity of State Officials before the International Law Commission-Introduction to the Symposium.” QUESTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW. flore.unifi.it, 2015.
Hendriawan, Muhammad Rizaldi. “Politics of Criminal Law Liability of Corporate Criminal in Indonesia.” Yuris (Journal of Court and Justice. journal.jfpublisher.com, 2022.
Humaira, Maghfira, and Pieter Everhardus Latumeten. “Policy of Notary Deed in Indonesia, Netherland, and Belgium during the Covid-19 Pandemic.” JPPI (Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan Indonesia) 8, no. 2 (2022): 289. https://doi.org/10.29210/020221374.
ILC. “Commentary Chapter VI Immunity of State Officials from Foreign Criminal Jurisdiction,” 2016.
Indonesia, Supreme Court of the Republic of. Supreme Court Decision No. 20 PK/Pid/2020 (2020).
———. Supreme Court Decision No. 439 K/Pid/2010 (2010).
———. Supreme Court Decision No. 933 K/Pid/2015 (2015).
Jervis, Claire E.M. “Jurisdictional Immunities Revisited: An Analysis of the Procedure Substance Distinction in International Law.” European Journal of International Law 30, no. 1 (2019): 105–28. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chz009.
Keitner, Chimène I. “Functional Immunity of State Officials Before the International Law Commission: The ‘Who’ and the ‘What.’” Questions of International Law 17 (2015): 51–57.
Khan, Asif, Shaukat Hussain Bhatti, and Abid Shah. “An Overview on Individual Criminal Liability for Crime of Aggression.” Liberal Arts and Social Sciences International Journal (LASSIJ) 5, no. 1 (2021): 432–42. https://doi.org/10.47264/idea.lassij/5.1.28.
Khanna, V. S. “Corporate Criminal Liability: What Purpose Does It Serve?” Harvard Law Review 109, no. 7 (1996): 1477. https://doi.org/10.2307/1342023.
knb. “Notarial Acts - The Royal Dutch Association of Civil-Law Notaries (KNB),” n.d.
Kwik, J. “Obstacles to Criminal Liability: A Systemic Analysis.” Lawfully Using Autonomous Weapon Technologies, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-631-4_12.
Larasati, R. “Critical Legal Studies Approach to the Governance and Effectiveness of Regional Notary Supervisory Boards in Indonesia.” Pena Justisia: Media Komunikasi Dan Kajian Hukum. jurnal.unikal.ac.id, 2025.
“Le Notariat et Notre Modèle de Droit Écrit | Conseil Supérieur Du Notariat,” n.d.
Leite, Larissa. “Immunity from Criminal Prosecution and Consular Assistance to the Foreign Detainee According the International Human Rights Law.” Immigration Detention, Risk and Human Rights: Studies on Immigration and Crime, 2016, 123–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24690-1_7.
Lestari, Fifi Ayu. “Criminal Liability for Notaries Those Involved in Document Forgery.” JILPR Journal Indonesia Law and Policy Review 7, no. 1 (2025): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.56371/jirpl.v7i1.514.
Lukito, Ratno. Perbandingan Hukum: Perdebatan Teori Dan Metode. Vol. 1. Gadjah Mada University Press, 2016.
Manna, M La. “Be Careful What You Wish for: The International Law Commission Recognizes a List of Instances in Which Functional Immunity Does Not Apply.” … Internazionale: Rivista Trimestrale Della Società Italiana …, 2018.
Marzuki, Peter Mahmud. Penelitian Hukum. Jakarta: Kencana, 2016.
Maskur, Muhammad Azil, Ali Masyhar, Ratih Damayanti, Diandra Preludio Ramada, and Subhra Sanyal. “Reimagining Criminal Liability in the Age of Artificial Intelligence: Toward a Comparative and Reform-Oriented Legal Framework.” Journal of Law and Legal Reform 6, no. 4 (2025). https://doi.org/10.15294/jllr.v6i4.35540.
Mazzeschi, Riccardo Pisillo. “The Functional Immunity of State Officials from Foreign Jurisdiction: A Critique of the Traditional Theories.” Leiden Studies on the Frontiers of International Law 3, no. June 2014 (2017): 509–34. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004269507_030.
Mukti, Achmad Yulianto dan Fajar. “Dualisme Penelitian Hukum Normatif Dan Empiris, Pustaka Pelajar, Yokyakarta,.” Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2022, 157.
Nahak, Simon. “The Liability of Criminal Law towards a Notary Official in the Crime of Embezzlement at the Denpasar District Court.” NOTARIIL Jurnal Kenotariatan, 2020. https://doi.org/10.22225/jn.v5i2.2572.
Nigro, R. “The Arbitral Award in the Enrica Lexie Case and Its Questionable Recognition of Functional Immunity to the Italian Marines Under Customary International Law.” The Italian Yearbook of International Law Online, 2021.
notaire.fr. “Responsibilities and Obligations of a Notary | Notaires de France,” n.d.
Octavia, Fenny, H. K. Martono, Tundjung Herning Sitabuana, and Gunawan Djajaputra. “The Use of Exoneration Clausules as a Legal Protection for Notary.” Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques. scholar.archive.org, 2020. https://doi.org/10.47277/JETT/8(4)1455.
Of, Royal Dutch Association, and Civil-Law Notaries. Olenz General Condition, 23 knb § (2025). https://doi.org/10.52152/801841.
Pantyukhina, I. V., and V. E. Yuzhanin. “Problem of Forms of Implementation of Criminal Liability.” Juridical Journal of Samara University 10, no. 2 (2024): 56–63. https://doi.org/10.18287/2542-047x-2024-10-2-56-63.
Peno, Michał, and Olgierd Bogucki. “Principles of Criminal Liability from the Semiotic Point of View.” International Journal for the Semiotics of Law 34, no. 2 (2021): 561–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-020-09691-z.
Robinson, Paul H. “Imputed Criminal Liability.” The Structure and Limits of Criminal Law, 2018, 29–96. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315085159-2.
Rossulliati, Dwi, Yoyok Ucuk, and Wahyu Prawesthi. “Criminal Liability of Notary in Criminal Act Committed By Notary Signing Agent.” Journal of Court and Justice, 2023, 54–65. https://doi.org/10.56943/jcj.v2i1.258.
Ryngaert, By Cedric. “Functional Immunity of Foreign State Officials in Respect of International Crimes before the Hague District Court : A Regressive Interpretation of Progressive International Law.” Blog of the European Journal of International Law 9, no. c (2020): 1–3.
Salsa, Shidqi Noer. Hukum Pengawasan Notaris Di Indonesia Dan Belanda. Prenada Media, 2020.
Santoso, Roni Joyo, and Adnan Hamid. “Discrepancies Between Legal Norms and Practices in the Protection of Notaries.” Jurnal Ilmu Hukum Kyadiren 7, no. 1 (2025): 135–50.
Setiawan Guntik, Dwikarunia, and Dewa Gede Pradnya Yustiawan. “Corporations As Whistleblowers in the Crime of Defamation Based on the Electronic and Transaction Information Act.” Policy, Law, Notary and Regulatory Issues (Polri). download.garuda.kemdikbud.go.id, 2022. https://doi.org/10.55047/polri.v1i1.43.
Siswanto, Carissa Amanda, Septhian Eka Adiyatma, Uche Nnawulezi, and Jacques Kabano. “Legal Recognition of Electronic Notarial Acts: A Comparative Study of Indonesia and Rwanda.” Indonesia Private Law Review 6, no. 2 (2026). https://doi.org/10.25041/iplr.v6i2.4686.
Stella, Stella. “Perlindungan Hukum Bagi Notaris Dalam Menghadapi Pengguna Jasa Nakal Di Era Teknologi Modern.” Reformasi Hukum 27, no. 1 (2023): 71–79. https://doi.org/10.46257/jrh.v27i1.593.
Tangerang, District Court of. District Court Decision No. 1461/Pid.B/2019/PN Tangerang (2019).
Ungaran, District Court of. District Court Decision No. 54/Pdt.G/2020/PN Ungaran (2020).
University, Cambridge. “Functional Immunity of Foreign State Officials and Crimes under International Law Case.” International Law Reports. 2023/01/10. Vol. 200. Cambridge University Press, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1017/ilr.2022.33.
Veresha, Roman. “Criminal and Legal Characteristics of Criminal Intent.” Journal of Financial Crime 24, no. 1 (2017): 118–28. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-02-2016-0013.
Wantoła, M. “Criminal Liability for Attempt. An Attempt at a New Perspective.” Czasopismo Prawa Karnego i Nauk Penalnych, 2021.
Wibisana, A G, M G Faure, and R Majory. “Error in Personam: Confusion in Indonesia’s Environmental Corporate Criminal Liability.” Criminal Law Forum, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10609-021-09412-6.
Widyawati, Anis, Ade Adhari, Ridwan Arifin, and Helda Rahmasari. “Crafting an Ideal Penitentiary Law: A Global Comparative Framework for Indonesia’ s Correctional System.” Legality : Jurnal Ilmiah Hukum 33, no. 2 (2025): 418. https://doi.org/10.22219/ljih.v33i2.40358.
Wilson, Adelyn L.M. “Notaries and Advocates in Early Modern Aberdeen.” Cultures of Law in Urban Northern Europe, 2020, 267–83. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429262869-20.
Winther, E. “Universal Jurisdiction: Methodology, Universal Jurisdiction and Functional Immunity before National Courts in International Law.,” 2023.
Yixuang, Zhong. “Criminal Immunity of State Officials for Core International Crimes Now and in the Future.” Vol. 20, 2014.
Zalfa Kamelia Rona Afsila. “Kajian Pertanggung Jawaban Pidana Seorang Notaris Dalam Pembuatan Akta Otentik Yang Didasarkan Pada Keterangan Palsu.” Sosial Simbiosis : Jurnal Integrasi Ilmu Sosial Dan Politik 1, no. 2 (2024): 12–21. https://doi.org/10.62383/sosial.v1i2.192.
Федоров, Александр Вячеславович. “Criminal Liability of Legal Entities in Estonia.” Расследование Преступлений: Проблемы И Пути Их Решения 35, no. 1(35) (2022): 14–29. https://doi.org/10.54217/2411-1627.2022.35.1.002.
Downloads
Published
Article ID
40401Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Sri Ratu Ratna Intan, Agus Surono, Agung Iriantoro, Tetti Samosir, Ibrahim Abyan Loftus (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
